Archeology

Artifacts from left to right: arrowheads, a mortar, a clear bottle, and a plate.

 

 

Archeology is the study of past ways of life through material remains. Archeology is often combined with oral history and ethnography to generate multidisciplinary or interdisciplinary studies of past lifeways and is usually categorized as a social science. Archeologists work to document, interpret, and protect these resources. Archeology has three goals:

1. Reconstruct sequences of societies and events in chronological order in local and regional contexts.

2. Reconstruct past lifeways, including the ways that people made a living (such as how they obtained and raised food as well as how they produced, distributed and consumed tools and other goods); the ways they used the landscape (such as the size and distribution of camps, villages, towns, and special places); and their interactions with other societies and within their own society (such as household structure, social organization, political organizations and relationships).

3. Achieve some understanding of how and why human societies have changed through time including and understanding and applying the relevance of archeological knowledge to modern society and management decisions.

Archeology Key Questions

Why does archeology matter? And who does it matter to? 

Archeology matters because:

1. It allows archeologists to uncover stories that may be forgotten or overwritten by a dominant narrative. The archeological record helps provide a picture of lifeways where written history may not exist.

2. Archeology is a non-renewable resource. Once this record is disturbed, information and connections to our shared human heritage is lost forever.

3. Archeology is not just important to archeologists:

1. Archeological resources hold religious and cultural significance to descendant communities. These resources are a physical record of their ancestral connections to time and place.

2. The public benefits from protecting and learning from the archeological record. The stories uncovered from studying archeology can bring a unique perspective to our current times and help us make choices for the future.

What is a typical day like for an archeologist at Yosemite?

Archeologists working at Yosemite do fieldwork, reporting, and resource management.

• Survey. Archeologists are specially trained to recognize human impacts on a landscape. This can include assessing and monitoring threats and disturbances (e.g., construction, restoration, fire management, visitor activities, natural processes). When they find an archeological site, they thoroughly document and map the resource for protection and future research.

• Monitor. Archeologists are involved in reviewing and monitoring all ground-disturbing projects in the park to make sure that archeological sites are not directly or indirectly damaged. Working with local American Indian representatives, archeologists can evaluate a project area and determine whether proposed activities will have impacts on resources and cultural landscapes.

• Subsurface Testing and Excavations. Using systemic techniques, archeologists can find materials buried in layers of soil. Some archeological sites in Yosemite Valley are more than six feet deep! Systematic excavations allow archeologists to reconstruct layers of history in the human past.

• Research. Like any other kind of scientist, archeologists form hypotheses and collect data to draw conclusions. For example, archeologists use x-ray technology to study obsidian flakes and map where the stones came from originally to recognize trade routes and other travel. Using a technique called obsidian hydration dating, archeologists can even discover how long ago a stone tool was made! Their work can be combined with the research of geologists, soil scientists, vegetation ecologists, anthropologists, and historians to create a portrait of the past.

• Educate. Archeology isn’t just at a site, in a lab, or a museum. Yosemite’s archeologists work with park rangers and the public to teach about cultural resource stewardship and our shared heritage.

• Create Partnerships. Archeologists work with many different groups of people. Archeologists provide critical input to ensure compliance with preservation laws and consultation with Tribes, agencies, and the public. All projects involving ground disturbance must be reviewed by archeologists to ensure that impacts are avoided, minimized, and mitigated. Descendants of Yosemite’s people can share oral histories of where people lived and the types of things they did, providing valuable clues of where to look next.

 

Yosemite's archeologists have documented 1,500 archeological sites that hold remnants of the past, like this obsidian projectile point.

Alex Saenz

What do archeologists look for out in the field?

Archeology is represented through artifacts, features, ecofacts, sites, districts, and landscapes.

Artifacts: An artifact is a single portable item that has historical value, usually over 50 years old. It is not only artifacts themselves that are important but the locations of artifacts relative to one another, which is referred to as archeological context. Examples include projectile points, pestles, cans, and ceramic or glass fragments.

Features: A feature has historical value and cannot be moved by hand from its location. We assume they were formed in the location where they can be found today. Examples include hearths, milling surfaces, tree blazes, trash middens, wall segments, and rock art.

Ecofacts: Ecofacts are ecological evidence associated human activities. These could include pollens remaining from plants that were in the area when the activities occurred.

Sites: A site is a location that contains the physical evidence of past human behavior that allows for its interpretation. It can be a collection of interrelated features and/or artifacts that are in physical proximity to each other. A site could be a mining camp, a precontact activity area for processing food or tools, or a historic hotel and its grounds.

Districts: An archeological district includes archeological resources that relate to one geographically. An example would be the archeological sites in distinct areas like Wawona, Yosemite Valley, Tuolumne Meadows, El Portal, or Foresta.

Landscapes: A landscape includes not just interconnected archeological sites, but the natural features and intangible resources that give a place its meaning.

What is cultural resource management?

Cultural resource management addresses the protection, preservation, and management of cultural resources like archeological sites. Oftentimes, this includes mitigating impacts to resources during construction work or potentially destructive human and environmental forces like water erosion or visitation. Most archeology in the United States (and in Yosemite) is conducted under cultural resource management statute and regulation, particularly that of the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, as amended (NHPA). Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act requires that federal agencies take into account the effect their undertakings have on properties listed in or eligible for listing in the National Register of Historic Places.

Why is context so important to archeological study?

Context is the most important aspect of an artifact, feature, or site. It is the connection between the physical setting, location, and cultural association of the resource. There are also chronological, historical, cultural, and social contexts that archeologists apply in their analysis.

The interrelationship of archeological resources and how they are situated on the landscape is often more important than the objects themselves. Removal of artifacts from their location destroys essential information needed to understand who was here and how they lived.

Context imbues archeological resources with significance and meaning. Without context, the meaning and significance of an archeological resource is lost.

What is a cultural landscape?

Cultural landscapes are historically significant places that show evidence of human interaction with the physical environment. Given that national parks encompass areas rich with cultural and natural resources, examining the cultural landscapes present can be a useful tool for understanding connections between people and place. Examples of cultural landscapes within Yosemite’s boundaries include The Ahwahnee hotel and its grounds, the Mariposa Grove, the Hetch Hetchy cultural landscape, and the many layered occupations of Yosemite Valley.

Best Practices Around Archeological Sites

Can I dig or metal detect in a national park?

With the growing popularity of metal detecting, and the possibility of discovering treasures, one automatically thinks of exploring historical sites. However, federal law prohibits the possession and use of metal detectors in National Parks (36 Code of Federal Regulations 2.1(a)(7)).

In addition to metal detecting, federal law also prohibits relic hunting, digging for artifacts, and removing artifacts or historical objects. These acts are illegal and can lead to confiscation of equipment, arrest, and prosecution as a felony under federal law. Penalties may include fines of up to $10,000 and possible prison time.

36 Code of Federal Regulations 2.1(a)(7) - the possessing or use of a metal detector magnetometer, side scan sonar, other metal detecting device or subbottom profiler is prohibited.

Archeological Resource Protection Act 1979 - All natural, cultural, and archeological resources are protected and may not be removed or disturbed.

Can I pick up an artifact?

If you find an artifact while hiking, you will feel immediately connected to the continuum of human history in Yosemite! Please look but don't touch. If artifacts are moved even a few feet, we can lose valuable contextual information. You may take photos of artifacts that you find within the park, but please keep all locational information to yourself if you decide to post pictures on social media.

If possible, please record the location and take a picture (if you know how, take a GPS coordinate of where you found it). Let Yosemite National Park know about an object by emailing us.

 What should I do if I find an artifact?

If you find an artifact, please leave it where you found it. You may come across historic artifacts that look similar to modern trash (like rusty cans or bottles). However, many of these artifacts are old enough to be historic and are protected by law.

If you find an artifact or grouping of artifacts that you think we should know about, please collect the following information and email us.

• Take a photo of the artifact(s) and an overview of the surrounding area

• Mark the location on a map and write description of location, types of artifacts, how many, what you think they are, condition, and any safety issues

 What makes an artifact historic?

Generally, we consider something historic if it is potentially eligible for listing in the National Register, which means that it must be at least 50 years old. Properties less than 50 years of age must be exceptionally important to be considered eligible for listing. Federal and state laws protect archeological site location information to prevent unauthorized collection, vandalism, or other human-caused disturbances.

How can I be as respectful as possible around archeology sites or other heritage resources?

When interacting with an archeology site, please remember that these are places that are important to people, including Tribal communities, and represent physical connections to their ancestral heritage. Tread softly, do not take anything, and do not visit heritage resources that Tribes do not wish to have visitors at. Even the crumbs from your picnic lunch could attract tunnelling rodents causing unintentional damage to the resources below.

Tribal Connections

Which contemporary Tribal Nations have traditional association within the Yosemite area?

Yosemite consults under relevant law and policy with seven traditionally associated American Indian Tribes. Five are federally recognized, and two are actively seeking recognition. Federally recognized tribes include North Fork Rancheria of Mono Indians of California, Tuolumne Band of Me-Wuk Indians, Picayune Rancheria of the Chukchansi Indians, Bridgeport Paiute Indian Colony, and Bishop Paiute Tribe. Mono Lake Kootzadika'a Tribe and Southern Sierra Miwuk Nation are seeking recognition and have recognized association, demonstrated interest, and enduring connections with ancestral homelands in Yosemite. The federally recognized tribes and state historic preservation officer support the park’s consultation relationship with the non-recognized tribes per NHPA 800.3(f).

How does the National Park Service (NPS) work with American Indian Tribes in the Yosemite area?

For more than 40 years, the park has worked with traditionally associated American Indian Tribes through formal consultation. The park supports the Tribes in continuing annual cultural and community events in the park. Tribal members serve as subject matter specialists, reviewing and commenting on proposed projects in the park and participating as members of project core teams, prescribed fire and fuels management, interpretive programs, and various building and infrastructure rehabilitation projects. Tribes are engaged in stewardship, research, and education through bi-weekly co-stewardship meetings, quarterly government-to-government meetings, providing expertise for NPS staff training, and providing leadership through tribal monitoring on construction projects.

To meet the 2021 Tribal Homelands Initiative and 2021 Secretarial Order 3403, park staff solicited feedback from Tribes and have clarified the following objectives:

• Viewpoints of traditionally associated tribes are represented in management and planning, throughout project lifespans.

• Members of these tribes have access to ancestral homelands for stronger cultural connections and traditional stewardship.

• Tribal members have control of their own stories, and the public has access to accurate information about tribal connections to Yosemite, both current and historical.

How should the groups that traversed Yosemite throughout its history be referred to? 

Many American Indian tribes and tribelets have historic connections to the Yosemite area throughout the 10,000 or more years of human history. These groups may be defined from one another by languages and dialects, cultural practices, or by geographic regions. Tribes and tribelets continue to be connected by marriage, trade, and collaborative inter-tribal events and activities.

The Indian Cultural Program of Yosemite encourages the usage of "First People of Yosemite" when referring to all indigenous people who have called the area their home since time immemorial.

Law, policy, and unratified treaties identify legal relationships between the federal government and “American Indian Tribes” as well as sovereign “Tribal Nations.”

The term Ahwahneechee is what one group of people who were living in Yosemite Valley called themselves when the first non-Indians entered the area. This term likely means “People of the Gaping Mouth Valley.”

Yohhe'meti (Southern Miwok) or Yos.s.e'meti (Central Miwok) originally referred to the Indian tribe that lived in Yosemite Valley. Yosemite means literally “those who kill” (Yos, “to kill,” the modifier e, “one who,” and the plural suffix -meti). It was used by the surrounding Miwok tribes. The Yosemite people were referred to as killers by these surrounding tribes, who feared them.

Archeology in Yosemite: Past, Present, and Future

How has the role of archeology changed in Yosemite?

Archeology in Yosemite has shifted from an earlier focus on scientific discovery (typically in the form of research-based excavations) to a more inclusive strategy that focuses on non-invasive approaches and collaboration with interested communities. With the onset of historic preservation laws, much of the archeological work in Yosemite is conducted to determine the significance and integrity of a site, to avoid, minimize, or mitigate impacts to archeology sites, and to determine how to best protect them in the future.

What archeology programs exist in the park?

• Wilderness archeology

• Fire archeology

• Compliance archeology (construction/ restoration monitoring, hazard tree work)

• Outreach, public education, research

• National Register of Historic Places nominations 

How long have people been here? How have people existed in and utilized this unique environment throughout time?

Local Tribal tradition and oral history say that the people of the Yosemite area were created here and have been here since time immemorial. Archeologists have uncovered material evidence that suggests that people were hunting in the Yosemite region nearly 10,000 years ago.

Human settlement and habitation patterns have always been affected by a variety of environmental changes. Early global warming between 8,000 and 4,500 years ago caused the tree line to move higher up the mountains. Oaks and chaparral expanded and diversified. There is less evidence of human habitation during this period in the archeological record and it is thought that Sierra Nevada residents migrated to the Central Valley. Conditions were more accommodating at lower elevations, and the Central Valley was a vast wetland brimming with resources during this time. Between 4,000 and 1,000 years ago, temperatures cooled and there is evidence of groups moving in greater numbers into the Sierra Nevada. During this phase there was an increase in trading throughout California. Shell beads from coastal regions as well as obsidian from the volcanoes east of the Sierra Nevada have been dated to this phase. Radiocarbon dates show that the Yosemite region has been occupied more or less continuously from this period onward. 

The earliest inhabitants of the Yosemite region were most likely seasonal hunting parties, who left behind stone spearpoints and scraping tools. During this time, populations were likely small and settlements ephemeral. Lifeways changed to a heavier reliance on seed foods, and the diverse economy included intricate trade networks to the east and west of Yosemite.

Later in time, hunting technology shifted from use of spearpoints and darts to use of bows and arrows. The material culture left behind from this later period shows the shift from large dart points to smaller arrow points. By at least 1,500 years ago, people processed acorn as a staple food. You may see granite outcrops or boulders containing small, smooth cups near creeks and meadows. These are pounding rock or mortar rocks, used to pound acorn meal into a high-protein flour. Groups conducted systematic prescribed burns to maintain oak, willow, grass and other useful plant crops.

The local economy was very diverse and included an intricate trade network. Most stone tools were made from obsidian, a volcanic glass (usually black in color). Obsidian does not occur naturally in Yosemite; all the obsidian used here was traded in or transported from the east side of the Sierra Nevada. Other trade items included acorns, baskets, raw obsidian material, finished obsidian tools, dog pups, salt, and shell ornaments. 

The California Gold Rush of 1849 changed native lifeways forever. Populations had already been decimated by European diseases. The influx of miners and traders led to conflict with Indians over land and resources, and to the “discovery” of Yosemite Valley by European Americans in 1851. Historical archeological resources in Yosemite include remains of early homesteads, mining and logging operations, tourist and National Park Service activities, and remnants of other more recent land uses.

A great cultural and ethnic diversity has always existed here. Many different tribelets speaking different languages and practicing their own unique cultural traditions were living in the Yosemite region when the first European Americans set foot on this landscape. African American Buffalo Soldiers working for the US cavalry were some of the first rangers in the park. Basque sheepherders moved through the meadows of the high country and hundreds of Italian and Chinese laborers built the first roads into Yosemite Valley. Today, diverse populations in Yosemite continue to shape and be shaped by this ever-changing landscape.

How many archeology sites have been documented in Yosemite?

Approximately 2,500 archeology sites have been documented throughout the nearly 1,200 square miles of Yosemite National Park. These sites occupy a large date range, from about 10,000 years ago to just 50 years ago and range from precontact milling features to remains of homesteads and orchards. Much of Yosemite has not been surveyed for cultural resources, and the potential for finding a new site grows higher around water features like streams and rivers.

Stewardship and Collaboration

 How are descendent communities involved with Yosemite?

Descendent communities have ancestral connections with the land within and around Yosemite National Park. They are the original stewards of the land and retain a rich continuous history and cultural connection with the landscape and its resources. There are many ways that Tribal communities interact with park operations and the heritage resources present. Examples include project consultation, construction monitoring in culturally sensitive areas, gathering plans, tending of black oak groves, prescribed burning, and much more. 

Wahhoga is a pre-contact and historic village site that is highly significant to tribes traditionally affiliated with Yosemite National Park. Wahhoga is the location of New Village, occupied from 1931 to 1969, representing the most-recently occupied native village in Yosemite Valley.

New Village occupants were removed from Yosemite Valley in 1969, but the 1980 General Management Plan (GMP) identified the need to redevelop this location for use by New Village residents, their descendants, and others in Yosemite’s tribal community.

Tribal use of this location for traditional, cultural, and educational purposes has been in National Park Service plans for over 40 years. A 2018 agreement among the NPS and the American Indian Council of Mariposa County (AICMC) allows tribal-led development and management of the site.

What public events happen in Yosemite each year involving the park’s archeology?

Archeologists are involved in annual large scale Yosemite events like Facelift and Horsetail Fall. Facelift is a parkwide trash clean up event that is organized by the park in conjunction with the Yosemite Climbing Association. Sometimes, items from historical archeology sites get mistaken for modern trash and are collected at cleanup events. Horsetail Fall as it is backlit by the setting sun on some days in February draws large crowds each year. Archeologists like to get involved in events like these to bring attention to archeological resources within Yosemite that may not be so obvious to the typical park visitor. When large crowds gather, their presence can impact archeological sites through forces like soil compaction and waste accumulation. Our presence at these events is to educate the public, park staff, and volunteers about the nature and importance of our archeological resources. 

How are cultural and natural resources managed together in Yosemite?

Collaboration between Yosemite’s different resource managers and interested communities has increased in recent years as the park has pursued interdisciplinary approaches. Connections between nature and culture are increasingly being emphasized. When archeology is considered along with other forms of ecological and ethnographic knowledge, a more complete picture of the past can be understood and protected from potential disturbances. A great example of cultural and natural joint resource management is the black oak tribal stewardship project where black oak trees are planted, pruned, and tended in Yosemite Valley. This project is a collaboration between the park and its affiliated tribes with the goal of restoring black oak habitat and traditional stewardship.