Overview
President Theodore Roosevelt established Montezuma Castle National Monument on December 8, 1906, to preserve the prehistoric structure known as Montezuma's Castle and the lands necessary for its protection. In 1943, Congress authorized the acquisition of additional lands containing Montezuma Well to become a detached unit of the monument. The location of these important cultural resources is directly related to vital natural resources: the perennial waters of Beaver Creek, and the aquatic sinkhole at Montezuma Well. Natural resource issues of concern include adjacent land use, development, and water use. Exotic invasive species are also an issue.
The Sonoran Desert Network monitors air quality, climate, groundwater, invasive exotic plants, landbirds, springs, seeps, and tinajas, streams, and vegetation and soils at Montezuma Castle National Monument. The results of this work can be found in a variety of publications and other information. The network also maintains species lists for the park.
Park Setting and Key Resources
Size: 347 hectares
Elevation range: 963–1,103 meters
Biogeography and physiography
Montezuma Castle National Monument spans only about 300 feet in elevation but includes diverse ecosystems. Lush aquatic and riparian ecosystems are associated with Beaver Creek, Wet Beaver Creek, and Montezuma Well. Elsewhere, dry, sparse upland thornscrub communities are separated by steep limestone cliffs. The monument lies in the Apache Highlands ecoregion. This region, characterized by mountain "sky islands" separated by grassland and desert scrub "seas," spans 30 million acres in Arizona, New Mexico, and Sonora and Chihuahua, Mexico. Montezuma Castle National Monument is part of the thornscrub biome.
Local geology and soils
Soil properties influence vegetation composition, persistence, and productivity. Two broad types of soils predominate at Montezuma Castle National Monument: (1) riverine bottomland alluvium and (2) rocky upland soils. Riverwash soils along Beaver Creek consist of stratified sand, silt, and clay, with scattered deposits of gravel, cobbles, stones, and boulders. In non-riparian areas, the Retriever soil series, consisting of limestone outcrops and soils, dominates the soils derived from calcareous parent materials at the Castle unit. The rest of the Castle unit is characterized by several series of finer calcareous soils, including fine sandy loams, gravelly sandy loams, and clays. However, soil properties can vary greatly over relatively small areas that may not be adequately captured by traditional soil surveys.
Biological soil crusts
Biological soil crusts are a community of cyanobacteria, algae, lichens, and bryophytes that live on the ground. They provide key ecosystem functions—resisting water and wind erosion, contributing organic matter, and fixing atmospheric nitrogen. Cyanobacteria weave through the upper few millimeters of soil, secreting polysaccharides and binding soil particles together. Mosses and lichens have small, anchoring structures that help them protect the soil surface.
At Montezuma Castle National Monument, cyanobacteria dominate the crust community on non-rocky soils derived from limestone. Lichens, comprising a fungus and either a cyanobacterium or a green alga, occur on the soil surface. Nine lichens and five mosses have been observed on monument soils.
NPS/Alice Wondrak Biel
Climate and hydrology
Climate at Montezuma Castle National Monument is typical of the Apache Highlands Ecoregion. The monument receives highly variable precipitation. Daily and seasonal air temperatures have a wide range. Potential evapotranspiration is relatively high. Approximately half of the annual precipitation falls during summer, when maximum air temperatures often exceed 86°F and lead to violent (and often localized) rainstorms. The bulk of the remaining annual precipitation falls in relatively gentle events of broad extent, occasionally as snow. Recent (1981–2010) historic, or "normal" average annual precipitation is 14.35 inches. Average maximum temperature is 81.2°F, and average minimum temperature is 43.6°F.
Weather and climate data for Montezuma Castle National Monument and all other Sonoran Desert Network parks can be found at The Climate Analyzer, an interactive website that allows users to create custom graphs and tables from historical and current weather-station data. A weather and climate inventory was created for the Sonoran Desert Network in 2007. A more recent brief shows the magnitude and direction of ongoing changes in climate at the monument.
Human habitation
Beginning around 900 AD, the valleys and hills along the Verde River were settled by a sequence of Hohokam, Hakataya, and Sinagua peoples. The Sinagua built and occupied the Montezuma Castle cliff-house complex from around 1200 to 1400 AD. They also farmed some of the fertile, flat land along the creeks, beginning around AD 600–800. European settlers resumed cultivation in the 1800s.
Today, the Southwest is one of the fastest-growing regions in the United States. Population in the Verde River watershed increased from approximately 82,000 in 1990 to about 148,000 from 2005 to 2009.
Key Issues
Adjacent land use, development, and water use
Adjacent land development affects the monument directly and indirectly. Potential impacts include the introduction of non-native species, increased groundwater withdrawal, surface water-quality problems and pollution, and visual intrusions to the natural landscape.
Groundwater and spring discharge contribute to the perennial flow in Beaver Creek. Adjacent land uses can interrupt these natural flow regimes. Increased well-drilling has lowered groundwater levels. Agricultural irrigation also affects the amount of creek water flowing through both units of the monument. Water quality can be affected by non-point source pollution, agricultural and livestock runoff, and septic wastewater discharge.
Photo by Russ Ottens; University of Georgia; Bugwood.org
Invasive exotic species
Non-native grasses, such as red brome (Bromus rubens) and ripgut brome (Bromus diandrus), are well-established in the Verde Valley. Exotic plant inventories of monument lands found 43 exotic plant species within the Castle unit.
Non-native animals include feral dogs and cats, cattle, European starlings, house sparrows, and bullfrogs. Non-native fish, crayfish, and the American bullfrog (Lithobates catesbeiana) may be causing declines in abundance and the extirpation of native fish, amphibians, and some aquatic reptiles. A 1995 study reported five non-native fish species in Wet Beaver Creek.
Quick Reads
Showing results 1-10 of 15
- Locations: Carlsbad Caverns National Park, Chiricahua National Monument, Coronado National Memorial, Fort Bowie National Historic Site, Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument, more »
- Offices: Chihuahuan Desert Inventory & Monitoring Network, Inventory and Monitoring Division, Natural Resource Stewardship and Science Directorate, Sonoran Desert Inventory & Monitoring Network
The National Park Service is implementing the restoration of native amphibians in over 20 sensitive wetlands across eight southwestern national parks. However, there's a particular threat (that croaks) that requires the NPS and partners to collaborate and innovate to find solutions.
- Locations: Carlsbad Caverns National Park, Chiricahua National Monument, Coronado National Memorial, Fort Bowie National Historic Site, Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument, more »
- Offices: Chihuahuan Desert Inventory & Monitoring Network, Sonoran Desert Inventory & Monitoring Network, Southern Plains Inventory & Monitoring Network
The American bullfrog is a great threat to aquatic ecosystems in the Southwest. They are voracious predators of aquatic animals and carry diseases that kill native species. We will implement three main actions in this project funded by the Inflation Reduction Act, Invasive Species Grant: bullfrog control, native species recovery and reintroduction, and development of early detection/rapid response protocols for bullfrogs.
- Locations: Chiricahua National Monument, Coronado National Memorial, Fort Bowie National Historic Site, Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument, Montezuma Castle National Monument, more »
- Offices: Inventory and Monitoring Division, Natural Resource Stewardship and Science Directorate, Sonoran Desert Inventory & Monitoring Network
At nine southwestern parks, Sonoran Desert Network staff are performing environmental DNA (eDNA) sampling. By analyzing the genomes present in a water sample, eDNA sampling allows us to learn which species use a given area without the use of capture, hair snares, or cameras. The results of this inventory will help NPS staff to prioritize springs for monitoring and conservation.
- Locations: Montezuma Castle National Monument
- Offices: Inventory and Monitoring Division, Natural Resource Stewardship and Science Directorate, Sonoran Desert Inventory & Monitoring Network
At Montezuma Castle National Monument, the precontact built environment reflects the importance of reliable water sources. At this parks, the Sonoran Desert Network monitors climate, groundwater, and springs. Understanding changes in these closely linked factors helps managers make informed decisions affecting both natural and cultural resources. Learn about our findings for water year 2022.
- Locations: Arches National Park, Aztec Ruins National Monument, Bandelier National Monument, Bent's Old Fort National Historic Site, Big Bend National Park, more »
- Offices: Chihuahuan Desert Inventory & Monitoring Network, Climate Change, Climate Change Response Program, Inventory and Monitoring Division, Mediterranean Coast Inventory & Monitoring Network, more »
When the climate changes enough, the vegetation communities growing in any given place will also change. Under an expanded bimodal climate zone, some plant communities in western national parks are more likely to change than others. National Park Service ecologists and partners investigated the future conditions that may force some of this change. Having this information can help park managers decide whether to resist, direct, or accept the change.
- Locations: Aztec Ruins National Monument, Bandelier National Monument, Canyon de Chelly National Monument, Casa Grande Ruins National Monument, Chaco Culture National Historical Park, more »
- Offices: Inventory and Monitoring Division, Natural Resource Stewardship and Science Directorate, Sonoran Desert Inventory & Monitoring Network
In the US Southwest, climate change is making it harder to preserve historic adobe structures for future generations. Using adobe test walls and rainshower simulators, staff at the Desert Research Learning Center are evaluating the potential for increased erosion, and testing the effectiveness of different treatments methods to protect against it. The results will help park managers tailor their preservation methods to better protect culturally valuable resources.
- Locations: Alibates Flint Quarries National Monument, Amistad National Recreation Area, Arches National Park, Aztec Ruins National Monument, Bandelier National Monument, more »
- Offices: Chihuahuan Desert Inventory & Monitoring Network, Greater Yellowstone Inventory & Monitoring Network, Inventory and Monitoring Division, Natural Resource Stewardship and Science Directorate, Northern Colorado Plateau Inventory & Monitoring Network, more »
Across the Intermountain Region, Inventory & Monitoring Division ecologists are helping to track the effects of climate change, provide baseline information for resource management, evaluate new technologies, and inspire the next generation of park stewards. This article highlights accomplishments achieved during fiscal year 2021.
- Locations: Casa Grande Ruins National Monument, Chiricahua National Monument, Coronado National Memorial, Fort Bowie National Historic Site, Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument, more »
- Offices: Inventory and Monitoring Division, Natural Resource Stewardship and Science Directorate, Sonoran Desert Inventory & Monitoring Network
The Heliograph is the newsletter of the Sonoran Desert Network and Desert Research Learning Center. In this issue, find out how eDNA inventories may change what we thought we knew about SODN springs. Learn about the new technology that will improve our streams monitoring, and the lasting contributions of our IVIPs to projects across multiple networks. Get caught up on our latest reports and the status of ongoing projects, and find out what’s happening at the DRLC.
- Locations: Casa Grande Ruins National Monument, Chiricahua National Monument, Coronado National Memorial, Fort Bowie National Historic Site, Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument, more »
- Offices: Inventory and Monitoring Division, Sonoran Desert Inventory & Monitoring Network
The Heliograph is the newsletter of the Sonoran Desert Network and Desert Research Learning Center. This issue features stories on how we adapted our operations to minimize field work lost to the covid-19 pandemic, vegetation mapping at Saguaro NP, and communication improvements and opportunities for network parks. We also probe the minds of our interns and celebrate a high honor for our program manager.
- Locations: Casa Grande Ruins National Monument, Chiricahua National Monument, Coronado National Memorial, Fort Bowie National Historic Site, Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument, more »
- Offices: Inventory and Monitoring Division, Sonoran Desert Inventory & Monitoring Network
The Heliograph is the newsletter of the Sonoran Desert Network and Desert Research Learning Center. This issue shares predictive tools and planning processes that can help park managers make proactive decisions in the face of climate change. We also explore some explanations for this spring's highly unusual saguaro bloom, celebrate our staff members, and provide updates on our monitoring projects.
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Source: Data Store Saved Search 4934. To search for additional information, visit the Data Store.
Source: Data Store Saved Search 4933. To search for additional information, visit the Data Store.
Last updated: November 1, 2022