Interpretive Themes

The Interpretive Theme Framework for Cuyahoga Valley National Park

Who We Are

Cuyahoga Valley National Park connects Cleveland and Akron along the Cuyahoga River and the historic Ohio & Erie Canal. People have been part of this landscape since the last glaciers retreated. Activism made us a “park by, of, and for the people.” With many partners, we protect and celebrate the diverse cultural and natural heritage of this industrial region. Together, we work to heal our communities and our Great Lakes, so all people, native plants, and wildlife can thrive. Cuyahoga Valley expands the idea of what a national park can be.

Essential Questions

• What does what we preserve say about our society?

• What does a just society look like?

• How do we weigh the needs of the few versus the many?

• What creates hope in the face of adversity?

• What makes a community healthy?

• What is worth fighting for?

• How do changing values drive our actions?

• Is access to greenspace a right or a privilege?

• What responsibilities do we have for future generations?

• How do we navigate the tension between human needs and the natural world?

 

Theme 1: A Park for the People

Summary Narrative

Cuyahoga Valley National Park’s existence speaks to how much Northeast Ohio values its tapestry of parklands close to home. Many people seek health, wellness, and renewal in nature. With our partners, we aspire to make the benefits of parks accessible to all.

Cleveland and Akron attracted diverse populations as they grew from canal towns into industrial powerhouses. Jobs drew immigrants from Europe, African Americans from the South, and white migrants from Appalachia. Starting in the late 1800s, people took pleasure rides through Cuyahoga Valley on canal boats, carriages, Valley Railway, and later automobiles. In the early 1900s, Cleveland and Akron established Ohio’s first two countywide park districts. The metropolitan parks, wealthy businessmen, and others purchased rural land for recreation. Within a few decades, Cuyahoga Valley was peppered with public parks, youth camps, and farms advertising family fun. African Americans founded recreational spaces of their own, including Camp Mueller, because of the racial discrimination and segregation of the era. By the 1960s, the valley added outdoor attractions such as Blossom Music Center and Hale Farm & Village.

The Nixon Administration launched its “Parks to People” policy in response to the social activism and civil unrest of the late 1960s. This aimed to make federal parklands more relevant, innovative, and accessible for an increasingly urban society. The policy also sought to protect the “environmental health of our Nation.” Meanwhile, Carl B. and Louis Stokes were Black political leaders from Cleveland. The brothers envisioned a national urban agenda that included what is now called environmental justice. During the turmoil of the era, many white residents fled urban centers. New highways and redevelopment schemes disproportionately harmed minorities and ravaged urban neighborhoods.

The pressures of suburban sprawl spread to Cuyahoga Valley, spurring local advocates to seek federal protection. At the 1974 Congressional hearings, US Representative John Seiberling said, “The proposed park would be a park by, of and for the people. The resources are there but are perishable. Time is running out . . .” The National Park Service initially opposed the idea. Despite the odds, strong bipartisan Ohio support led to this “green shrouded miracle.”

Key Ideas and Focus Areas

1.1 The idea that parks are vital to people’s physical and mental health became popular in the mid-1800s. The Nature Study Movement emphasized the value of rural outdoor experiences and nature observation for urban residents. The Play Movement had similar goals focused on adult recreation and organized play for children. Locally, people from Cleveland and Akron began visiting Cuyahoga Valley to enjoy rural scenery, recreation, and entertainment. They built youth camps and attractions. Most were segregated in the early years. The longest running, Black-led camp was Camp Mueller.

1.1.1 In the early 1900s, several prominent business leaders owned retreats and country estates in Cuyahoga Valley. Many of these properties were later donated or sold to park systems and are now public land. Other business leaders provided financing for major land purchases.

Focus areas: F.A. and Gertrude Seiberling family (Stan Hywet Hall & Gardens, Sand Run Metro Park, and F.A. Seiberling Nature Realm), Hayward Kendall (Virginia Kendall Park), Wentworth Goodson Marshall (Friendly Inn Camp, Old Carriage Trail), William H. Hunt (Terraced Lakes, Hemlock Creek Trail), Charles F. and Dorothy Brush (Furnace Run Metro Park), William and Grace O’Neil (O’Neil Woods Metro Park), H. Karl Butler (Camp Manatoc and Camp Butler), Ralph S. Mueller (Camp Mueller), C.W. Seiberling (Camp Ledgewood)

1.1.2 The Nature Study Movement led to the development of environmental education. In the early 1900s, two of the first American farm schools for juvenile rehabilitation operated on the valley’s edges. Soon after, the first youth camps began in Cuyahoga Valley. These touted the moral, physical, and mental health benefits of city children being outdoors in rural areas. Early metropolitan park programs emphasized nature study and outdoor skills. Today, learners of all ages still engage in nature observation through diverse creative and scientific activities. This develops a comfort with being outdoors. Feeling curiosity, awe, and wonder can inspire return visits.

Focus areas: Frederick Law Olmsted, Harriet Keeler (Brecksville Reservation), Arthur B. Williams (Brecksville Nature Center), Maude Milar (Akron Metropolitan Park District), William Vinal (Sand Run and Virginia Kendall), Bert Szabo (Summit Metro Parks), H. Karl Butler (Camp Manatoc and Camp Butler), Camp Ledgewood, Blossom Hill School for Girls (Brecksville), Cleveland Boys’ School (Hudson), Jane Edna Hunter and Camp Mueller (Phillis Wheatley Association), Happy Days Camp, Kendall Lake, Camp Freedom, Bill and Anna Johnson (Stonibrook), Wentworth Goodson Marshall (Friendly Inn Camp, Old Carriage Trail), Chippewa Valley Camp/Camp Karamu (Brecksville Reservation), William Sommer and the artist colony at Brandywine Falls, arts and music in Peninsula, Cuyahoga Valley Photographic Society, Crooked River Gang, Wick Poetry Center, Cuyahoga Valley Environmental Education Center, birding groups and programs, volunteer Wildlife Watchers, citizen science projects, Ohio Certified Volunteer Naturalists, Green Book Cleveland

1.1.3 Starting in the early 1900s, some valley farms attracted city people by offering events, rural farm stays, roadside stands, and family-friendly recreational experiences. This tradition continues with local small businesses and our park partners.

Focus areas: Hale Farm & Village, Duncan farm, Helyn Fiedler Toth (Hunt House), Szalay’s Farm & Market, park farming program, farmers markets and farmstands, Heritage Farms, Stanford Hostel/House, the Inn at Brandywine, Crown Point Ecology Center, Green Book Cleveland

1.1.4 Two Black clubs, one in and one adjacent to Cuyahoga Valley, were part of a vibrant jazz circuit in the mid-1900s. During a time of widespread segregation, people of different racial and gender identities came together for fun.

Focus areas: Akron’s jazz district, Lake Glen (Crown Prince Waterford and female impersonator Billie McAllister), Cabin Club/Drift-Inn, Nathaniel Point (Akron clarinetist and valley farmer), Green Book Cleveland

1.1.5 In the mid-1900s, new attractions drew visitors to Cuyahoga Valley, demonstrating its potential for expanded recreation and tourism. Some sites continue to operate today.

Focus areas: Siegfried Buerling (Hale Farm & Village and Cuyahoga Valley Scenic Railroad), School of the Woods (F.A. Seiberling Nature Realm), Tom Jones (Blossom Music Center and Tamsin Park), the Cleveland Orchestra, Porthouse Theatre (Kent State University), Boston Mills and Brandywine ski resorts, Brandywine and other golf courses, Camp Butler, Richfield Coliseum, Heritage Farms, Stanford Hostel/House, the Inn at Brandywine, Valley Overlook at Camp Mueller, Crown Point Ecology Center

1.2 Local residents have fought to preserve the Cuyahoga Valley since the 1920s, in multiple waves of activism and government action. County park districts acquired land early on. After decades of efforts, Cuyahoga Valley National Recreation Area was established in December 1974. It was renamed Cuyahoga Valley National Park in 2000.

1.2.1 The National Park Service was established in 1916. Cleveland Metroparks formed in 1917. In 1921, Boston Township petitioned to create the Akron Metropolitan Park District (now Summit Metro Parks). Both local districts kicked off initial efforts to create parklands in Cuyahoga Valley. Both hired the Olmsted Brothers firm to draft plans for their new park systems.

Focus areas: Cuyahoga County Park and Boulevard System documents (1916), William Stinchcomb (Cleveland Metroparks), Harold S. Wagner (Akron Metropolitan Park District), Preliminary Report on Park Lands in the Cuyahoga Valley (Akron Planning Commission, 1920), Olmsted plans (1920s), F.A. Seiberling (AMPD Board of Park Commissioners), Harriet Keeler Memorial Woods (Brecksville Reservation), Bedford Reservation, Sand Run Metro Park, Steps in Time: Ninety Years of Metro Parks, Serving Summit County (2012), The 100 Year Trail: A Centennial Celebration of Cleveland Metroparks (2016)

1.2.2 During the Great Depression of the 1930s, Cleveland Metroparks and Akron Metropolitan Park District (AMPD) skillfully secured federal relief funds to develop their new parks. The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) employed local men during this economic crisis. In Cuyahoga Valley, men from the CCC and Works Progress Administration (WPA) built picnic shelters, lodges, swimming lakes, parking lots, trails, a winter sports center, toboggan runs, scenic overlooks, parkways, and a nature center. AMPD managed Virginia Kendall, a state park. Camps were segregated. An African American WPA crew may have worked in Bedford Reservation. An integrated one realigned Riverview Road.

Focus areas: Happy Days Lodge, Ledges, Octagon, Kendall Lake, Brushwood Lake and shelter (Furnace Run Metro Park), Brecksville Nature Center, CCC camps (Virginia Kendall Park, Brecksville Reservation, and Sand Run Metro Park), WPA projects (Brecksville and Bedford reservations and on Riverview Road near Botzum)

1.2.3 From the 1920s until 1940, advocates from Peninsula and Boston Township rallied to preserve Cuyahoga Valley’s rural scenery, historic structures, and way of life. Efforts resumed in 1960. Victories included saving Bronson Memorial Church, Wood Store, the G.A.R. Hall, Boston Store, and Peninsula Depot (originally Boston Mill Depot). They altered the plans for I-271. Deep Lock Quarry opened as a metro park in 1963. In 1974, downtown Peninsula became a national historic district.

Focus areas: Humorists and newspapermen Robert Bordner and Fred C. Kelly, Hayward Kendall, Cuyahoga Valley Association (1940), Lily Fleder, Robert L. Hunker, Peninsula Valley Heritage Association, the Bronson Church Committee, I-271 view from Brandywine Falls, Deep Lock Quarry Metro Park

1.2.4 While there had been earlier murmurs, the push for federal protection and preservation of Cuyahoga Valley heated up in response to suburban sprawl. Suburbanization was influenced by racist policies and “white flight” from cities. These forces helped drive the environmental movement as it reshaped communities and access to green space. White and Black middle-class women often led campaigns to save open space and the historic character of their communities.

Focus areas: Congressman John F. Seiberling, Congressman Ralph Regula, Congressman Charles Vanik, highways and power lines cut through Cuyahoga Valley, Greenwood Village development begins (1970), Richfield Coliseum plans (1971), Towpath Village construction (1972), Congressional hearings (1974), Dr. Sylvia Hood Washington’s family and the Lee-Miles neighborhood (Cleveland), Peg Bobel, Lily Fleder, Portage Trail Group of the Sierra Club, local women-led environmental advocacy groups

1.2.5 The new Nixon Administration articulated its Parks to People policy in 1969 in response to civil unrest and social activism. A pilot project established the first urban national recreation areas in 1972. President Ford authorized Cuyahoga Valley as a national recreation area on December 27, 1974. It was officially designated on June 26, 1975. Few followed. Creating a large urban park involves more land parcels, stakeholders, and political interests than a traditional one. Restoring land after other uses is challenging too.

Focus areas: President Richard Nixon, President Gerald Ford, Carl B. and Louis Stokes (see 2.3), Gateway and Golden Gate national recreation areas, George B. Hartzog, Jr.

1.2.6 The early years of Cuyahoga Valley National Recreation Area were marred by conflict with valley communities. The scale of land acquisition was larger than initially promised. The making of this national park included displacement of residents, piecing together land parcels, managing vacant structures, setting up park operations, and cleaning up pollution. Communities experienced loss of population and tax base along with crowding from visitors. Relationships began to ease when John Debo became park superintendent and the park rapidly added new trails, programs, and facilities. Now, land buying is limited to critically important properties and is usually done through non-profit partners. Formal public input is required for major national park planning efforts. Nevertheless, living with a national park has its frustrations.

Focus areas: Tonkin family (Beaver Marsh and Howe Meadow), Virginia Kendall Park lands history, Everett, Village of Peninsula, Boston Township, Army Corps of Engineers land acquisition, Krejci dump site, Jaite Mill site, Hardy Road landfill, Trust for Public Land (former Richfield Coliseum site and others), John Debo, Congressman Ralph Regula, Dennis Hamm, “Helltown” myths and urban legends, West Creek Conservancy, PBS Frontline episode: For the Good of All (1983), For All People, For All Time documentary,  PEPC process (Planning, Environment & Public Comment), A Green Shrouded Miracle

1.2.7 The park friends’ group was initially named Cuyahoga Valley Association. Over several decades, the nonprofit transformed into the Conservancy for Cuyahoga Valley National Park. Today they generate tremendous community support for the park through their work to co-manage facilities and programming, and advocate and fundraise for park needs.

Focus areas: Peg Bobel, Deb Yandala, Cuyahoga Valley Environmental Education Center, Volunteer Management Office, cultural arts programming, Boston Mill Visitor Center, Extraordinary Spaces, acquisition of Brandywine Golf Course

1.2.8 The Ohio & Erie Canalway National Heritage Area was designated in 1996, anchored by the national park. This provided a framework and funding for the Canalway partners to work together on connecting recreational corridors and preserving resources. The heritage area led to physical connections between the park and the cities of Akron and Cleveland.

Focus areas: Ohio & Erie Canalway Association, Canalway Partners, Ohio & Erie Canalway Coalition, Towpath Trail, Cuyahoga Valley Scenic Railroad, the Ohio & Erie Canalway America’s Byway, Congressman Ralph Regula

1.3 The national park and its many partners provide opportunities for diverse people to engage with our resources, our stories, and each other. Our connected parklands are a refuge for those seeking enjoyment, wellness, and healing. Our historic places connect people to our complex heritage. We strive to be welcoming and inclusive for people who have different interests, lived experiences, abilities, and viewpoints. We strive to support community goals that address health disparities, and other aspects of environmental and economic justice.

1.3.1 Cuyahoga Valley was first established as a national recreation area. Many visitors still come primarily for recreation, health, and wellness. Over time, we have built facilities and trails to support new activities. Researchers now study the physical and mental benefits of getting outside in nature.

Focus areas: Health and wellness programs, nature/park prescriptions, fishing programs, Towpath Trail, Buckeye Trail, Virginia Kendall play fields, Cuyahoga River Water Trail (paddling), East Rim Trails (mountain biking), winter sports, Cycling Schools, horse trails, services providing recreational equipment, Kendall Lake’s original use and history of swimming

1.3.2 The national park connects to nearby cities via multiple trails and modes of transportation. Still, it remains out of reach for some area residents. Many minority communities have less access to quality public amenities due to the legacies of redlining, suburbanization, and disinvestment. The park and its partners work to make our green corridors accessible to all by removing barriers and engaging community members.

Focus areas: Ohio & Erie Canalway, Ohio & Erie Canal Towpath Trail, Cuyahoga Valley Scenic Railroad, America’s Byway, Bike & Hike Trail (Summit Metro Parks), Cuyahoga River Water Trail, Buckeye Trail, Hemlock Creek Trail, Old Carriage Trail, Valley Parkway, Sagamore Connector Trail (proposed), Ohio to Erie Trail, nearby highways, public transit connections, community engagement programming, inclusive planning practices, accessibility projects

1.3.3 Cuyahoga Valley has a long history of music and arts. The national park and its friends’ group began co-managing a cultural arts program in the 1980s, connecting us to regional and national creative networks. Today, we continue the tradition of live music, performance, and other forms of expression. This invites people to engage with the park in culturally relevant ways.

Focus areas: National Folk Festival (1980s), Cuyahoga Valley Heritage Festival, Players Barn, G.A.R. Hall, Happy Days Lodge, Howe Meadow, Hines Hill house concerts, arts-in-parks projects and residencies, Blossom Music Center, Porthouse Theatre, local musicians and venues with valley ties, Cuyahoga Valley Photographic Society, Conservancy’s galleries in Boston, Wick Poetry Center, Weathervane Playhouse

1.3.4 The park’s Junior Ranger program began in the 1980s. The initial focus was teaching outdoor skills to urban youth. It has since expanded to include a range of offerings and topics. Our first education center was named Earthlore. In the early 1990s, the property was redeveloped as the Cuyahoga Valley Environmental Education Center. This is co-managed with our friends’ group and serves students and educators.

Focus areas: Gayle Hazelwood, Junior Ranger programs and media, Earthlore, Cuyahoga Valley Environmental Education Center, Deb Yandala

 

Theme 2: An Icon of the Environmental Movement

Summary Narrative

The Cuyahoga is a little river with a big story. A notorious incident a few miles downstream of Cuyahoga Valley grabbed the world’s attention at just the right time. This iconic moment was the 1969 Cuyahoga River fire in Cleveland which put a global spotlight on water pollution.

Fires had been happening on industrial rivers for a century. Relatively small and brief, this one would have been forgotten if it were not for Carl B. Stokes. Stokes was a national figure, the first Black mayor of a major US city. He skillfully used his fame to elevate the fire story, advocating for the broader needs of what he called the “urban environment.” Mayor Stokes argued that air and water pollution, poor housing, and poverty could only be addressed through investments and policy changes at the regional, state, and national levels. Carl and his brother, Congressman Louis Stokes, helped define America’s urban agenda. Their vision was two decades ahead of the environmental justice movement.

The press also played a critical role. Betty Klaric, a pioneering environmental reporter, shaped the message by leading a local media campaign to “Save Lake Erie.” She regularly worked alongside Mayor Stokes. Ohioans still talk about articles in Time and National Geographic that put the 1969 fire into a national context.

The public response to the 1969 fire helped lead to environmental activism, new laws, and innovations in water protection. Within five years, this national park was established, protecting 25 of the river’s 100 miles. Funds to clean up the Cuyahoga have flowed because it is part of the Great Lakes, the world’s largest freshwater system. The Cuyahoga is now among the nation’s most studied rivers. Ohio pioneered the use of biological standards to measure water quality. Nesting bald eagles, river otter, and abundant fish testify to the Cuyahoga’s remarkable comeback. Having already exceeded all expectations, a broad coalition of river supporters continues to aim for previously unimaginable goals. Together we strive to advance the Stokes’ vision for environmental justice.

Key Ideas and Focus Areas

2.1 The Cuyahoga became an industrial river. Before the deindustrialization and environmental laws of the 1970s, its watershed was home to many industries and municipalities that used the river as a sewer. After decades of cleanup and better practices, the Cuyahoga is now becoming a recreational river as well.

2.1.1 Beginning in the late 1800s, Cleveland and Akron become important manufacturing centers famous for oil, steel, rubber, and paint. These and other industries, plus booming urban populations, generated lots of pollution.

Focus areas: Standard Oil, John D. Rockefeller, local steel companies, Sherwin-Williams, Goodyear Tire & Rubber, Seiberling family, Firestone, B.F. Goodrich, sewer pipe industry

2.1.2 The solution to pollution could no longer be dilution. The histories of Cleveland and Akron’s water treatment facilities reveal the technical, legal, financial, and political challenges caused by industrial booms and busts. Today’s high sewer rates place a disproportionate burden on low-income residents.

Focus areas: Three Rivers Watershed District, Cleveland Clean Water Task Force, Northeast Ohio Regional Sewer District, Akron Waterways Renewed, Akron Water Reclamation Facility

2.1.3 The last six miles of the Cuyahoga are a federal shipping channel which requires cooperation by many partners. Decreasing soil erosion in Cuyahoga Valley and other places upstream means less costly dredging downstream. More safety awareness helps reduce accidents between freighters and smaller boats. More public river access improves our quality of life and brings economic benefits.

Focus areas: River and Harbors Act (1899 and later updates), Port of Cleveland, US Army Corps of Engineers, Cuyahoga River Restoration Study (1970-1985), CVNP Degraded Site Restoration Plan (1987), riverbank stabilization and reforestation projects, see 5.4

2.1.4 Many people and organizations transformed the Cuyahoga into a recreational river, establishing it as an Ohio water trail in 2019.

Focus areas: Cuyahoga River Water Trail partners and access sites, Gorge Dam removal project, Friends of the Crooked River, RiverDay and other river cleanup efforts, removal of the Brecksville Diversion Dam

2.2 The 1969 Cuyahoga River fire and the “death” of Lake Erie put a global spotlight on water pollution. Over time, they became potent symbols of the environmental movement, as traditionally defined.

2.2.1 Within the shipping channel, the Cuyahoga caught fire at least 13 times, from the 1860s to the 1960s.

Focus areas: 1952 Cuyahoga River fire, 1969 Cuyahoga River fire

2.2.2 Water quality activism began earlier than most people realize. A 1919 complaint from the Boston Township trustees to the new Ohio Department of Health resulted in Akron building its water treatment facility in the southern Cuyahoga Valley. The Cuyahoga River Water Quality Committee formed in 1963. From 1964-1972, pioneering environmental reporter Betty Klaric led a successful media campaign to save Lake Erie. Increasingly, suburban women stepped into environmental leadership roles. Cleveland Mayor Carl B. Stokes passed a $100 million bond issue in 1968.

Focus areas: Akron Water Reclamation Facility, Akron Waterways Renewed, Boston Township, Betty Klaric, Save Lake Erie Now campaign, Citizens for Clean Air and Water, Citizens for Land and Water Use, Carl B. Stokes, Edith Chase, League of Women Voters’ Lake Erie Basin Committee, Cuyahoga River Water Quality Committee

2.2.3 Public reaction to a series of environmental disasters in 1969 led to activism, new laws, and innovations in water protection. The 1969 Cuyahoga River fire endures as the global symbol of this period. In 1998 the Cuyahoga was designated one of 14 American Heritage Rivers.

Focus areas: Santa Barbara oil spill (January-February 1969), Cuyahoga River fire (June 1969), Rouge River fire (October 1969), Water Quality Improvement Act (1970), first Earth Day (1970), Kent Environmental Council forms (1970), US Environmental Protection Agency forms (1970), Ohio EPA forms (1972), Northeast Ohio Regional Sewer District forms (1972), Clean Water Act (1972), Elaine Marsh, Friends of the Crooked River forms (1990), first River Day (1991), Cuyahoga Valley Environmental Education Center opens (1994), Watershed Stewardship Center opens in West Creek Reservation (2013)

2.2.4 Once a source of shame, the Cuyahoga is now an inspiration, demonstrating how people can heal a damaged river. The sea change occurred in 2019 when more than 300 organizations, municipalities, agencies, and corporate partners came together to acknowledge and celebrate the progress made 50 years after the infamous fire.

Focus areas: Cuyahoga 50, Xtinguish Celebration, American Rivers names the Cuyahoga “River of the Year” (2019)

2.3 Mayor Carl B. Stokes and his brother, Congressman Louis Stokes, viewed Cleveland’s water quality problems in the broader context of the “urban environment.” They were epioneers in what would later be called environmental justice. Now, Cuyahoga Valley National Park and its partners are exploring the intersections of race and environment more deeply.

2.3.1 Carl B. Stokes held a historic Pollution Tour for the press the day after the 1969 Cuyahoga River fire. His language put people first, focusing on the “urban environment.” He advocated for a regional approach to water quality, noting that pollution from upstream communities flowed into Cleveland. Mayor Stokes helped show that the environmental movement was situated in white, middle-class America and was not responsive to the needs of low-income, minority communities in the city he led. Today, activists from communities of color are working to change this.

Focus areas: Carl Stokes, Louis Stokes, Charles Vanik, Betty Klaric, the Save Lake Erie campaign, the Wade-in Movement, safe swimming efforts at White Beach and Edgewater Park on Lake Erie, redlining, Black Environmental Leaders

2.3.2 Memories of the 1969 Cuyahoga River fire endured because they contributed to Cleveland being the butt of jokes for decades, initially replacing ethnic jokes on national TV comedy shows. The nickname “Mistake on the Lake” first appeared in print in 1964 in a letter to the Call and Post, a Black newspaper, in reference to race issues in Cleveland.

Focus areas: Rowan and Martin’s Laugh-in jokes begin (1968-1973), TV writer Jack Hanrahan, “Mistake on the Lake” history 

2.3.3 Congressman Louis Stokes had a pivotal role in securing funds for a 1970-1985 study of the Cuyahoga River. The study identified erosion in Cuyahoga Valley as a major problem for the Cleveland shipping channel. Work to fix the problem is ongoing.

Focus areas: 1970-1985 US Army Corps of Engineers study of Cuyahoga River, Cuyahoga Valley list of degraded sites, Dave Kopchak, current erosion control projects

2.3.4 The Cuyahoga River has a history of being a dividing line. It was once the western boundary of the US, separating colonial settlement from Native American territories. Today it is viewed by some as a boundary between the Black and white populations of Cleveland.

Focus areas: Treaty of Greenville (1795), East Side vs West Side, redlining

2.4 The Cuyahoga River is internationally important because it is part of the Great Lakes watershed. The lower half of the river and the nearby Lake Erie shoreline has been legally designated as one of the most impacted by pollution. There is a formal process to clean it up and to “delist” it as an “Area of Concern.” This work improves the natural and human communities of this region. The national park and its partners work for the continued protection of the river and the Great Lakes.

2.4.1 Cuyahoga River restoration projects are part of an international effort to improve the health of the Great Lakes, the largest supply of freshwater in the world.

Focus areas: Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement (1987), Cuyahoga River Area of Concern, Great Lakes Restoration Initiative, habitat restoration projects, dam removal, sewer system improvements in Peninsula and Boston, stormwater management projects in Cuyahoga Valley, Akron Waterways Renewed, Northeast Ohio Regional Sewer District, E. coli, Great Lakes NowCast

2.4.2 The return of wildlife by natural processes or successful reintroductions reflects the continuing recovery of the Cuyahoga River and Great Lakes watersheds.

Focus areas: Bald eagle, river otter, American beaver, northern hogsucker, bigmouth buffalo, freshwater mussels, lake sturgeon, fisher, see 5.4

2.4.3 A large group of partners are going through a formal process to “delist” the Cuyahoga River as a Great Lakes “Area of Concern,” or AOC. This involves demonstrating scientifically that all 10 “Beneficial Use Impairments,” or BUIs, have been addressed. Delisting means the area is no longer a pollution hotspot and is typical of similar areas. Additional work is needed to fully return the river to health.

Focus areas: International Joint Commission, Ohio EPA, Cuyahoga River Restoration, Remedial Action Plan (RAP), Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement, Cuyahoga River AOC Advisory Committee, Ohio Lake Erie Commission, BUI 1a Fish Consumption, BUI 3a Fish Populations, BUI 4 Fish Tumors and Other Deformities, BUI 6 Macroinvertebrates, BUI 7 Dredging Restrictions, BUI 8 Undesirable Algae, BUI 10a Beach Closings, BUI 10b Public Access, BUI 11 Degraded Aesthetics, BUI 14a Loss of Fish Habitat, dam removal projects

 

Theme 3: A Crucial Transportation Corridor

Summary Narrative

Transportation history is a window into past and present economic systems. At its foundation is geography. The lower Cuyahoga River was a critical link in a network of waterways connecting the Great Lakes with the Gulf of Mexico and the East Coast. This network included the eight-mile Portage Path, located south of Cuyahoga Valley. Native Americans used the trail to carry their canoes and cargo over a continental divide.

During the 1800s, the Ohio & Erie Canal and later the Valley Railway followed the river through Cuyahoga Valley. Better inland transportation fueled the young United States economy. It carried goods from Ohio farms, forests, mills, mines, and quarries east to grow New York City. People and ideas moved faster too. The canal-railroad system launched Cleveland and Akron as major industrial cities famous for oil, steel, and rubber. The economy boomed with little regulation, contributing to climate change and pollution.

Connecting Akron and Cleveland, the Cuyahoga Valley increasingly became their countryside. It was closely tied to the two cities economically and offered new places for leisure. The interstate highway system, established in 1956, drove suburban sprawl and disproportionately impacted communities of color. Locally, it revived the push for Cuyahoga Valley’s protection.

Today, the national park and its partners preserve and adapt historic transportation infrastructure as recreational trails and a scenic railroad. These reconnect neighboring cities with green spaces and spur conversations about current public works projects. Transportation history is rich with diverse human stories. They include freedom seekers traveling the Underground Railroad and community groups resisting highway projects. Sharing these stories acknowledges injustices, honors bravery and sacrifice, and demonstrates the power of cooperation. Reflecting on them enriches public debate over redevelopment projects that shape our future.

Key Ideas and Focus Areas

3.1 People have moved along the Cuyahoga River and through its valley for millennia. Native Americans had extensive trade networks of footpaths and waterways. Later transportation networks were built upon the earlier routes and made the movement of people, goods, and ideas even easier. Changing transportation systems impact society in many ways.

3.1.1 Diverse Native American cultures traded and traveled along the Cuyahoga River and through its valley until the early 1800s. They forged the Portage Path, an eight-mile overland route between rivers. It was a key part of a far-reaching trade network that connected the eastern half of the continent. Today, engagement with federally recognized Tribes will guide how this heritage is shared with the public.

Focus areas: Precontact trade networks and artifacts, Precontact archeological areas, wayside exhibits in Sand Run Metro Park (Akron), Portage Path historical markers (Akron), George Croghan’s trading post, François Saguin’s trading post, South Park village, Pilgerruh, Cuyahoga River and Prehistoric People wayside exhibit, Colonel James Smith’s account of captivity (1799)

3.1.2 Some travelers moved through the Ohio country under duress, either fleeing violence or as prisoners. The United States forcibly removed native people as its boundaries expanded. Black freedom-seekers crossed the state on the Underground Railroad. The Ohio & Erie Canal was part of that network.

Focus areas: The forced removal of the Miami (Myaamia) people via the canal system in western Ohio, Pilgerruh, Lewis Clarke, John Malvin, John Brown, Towpath Trail, Canal Exploration Center exhibits, Peninsula/Route 303, John Brown House (Akron), Underground Railroad sites in Hudson, Oviatt House (Richfield), Rhoads-Harter House (Massillon), Cozad-Bates House (Cleveland), National Underground Railroad Network to Freedom, St. John’s Episcopal Church (Ohio City), Wilbur H. Siebert papers, Spring Hill Historic Home (Massillon)

3.1.3 Each new transportation mode followed the last through Cuyahoga Valley. Each had its own issues, brought about social changes, and changed the valley landscape. Construction and operation of the canal and railroad left the valley largely denuded of vegetation. This began storm water problems that continue today.

Focus areas: the industrial history of Boston and Peninsula; exhibits at Canal Exploration Center, at Boston Mill Visitor Center, along the Towpath Trail, and in the railroad stations; Frazee House; Cuyahoga Valley Scenic Railroad; the I-271 and I-80 bridges in Boston; Cuyahoga River Water Trail; Bike & Hike Trail; valley sawmills; environmental conditions noted in the 1880 Ohio Canal division reports

3.1.4 Interstate highways skirted and crossed over Cuyahoga Valley. During construction, they damaged urban neighborhoods and small towns. Over time, they facilitated suburban sprawl and disinvestment in our cities. This disparity has left a long-term legacy of environmental injustice.

Focus areas: Brandywine Falls and I-271, I-77 and Furnace Run Metro Park, Boston Mill Visitor Center wayside exhibit, Towpath Trail at the I-271 and I-80 bridges in Boston, Riverview Road in downtown Peninsula, Dr. Sylvia Hood Washington, Lee-Seville neighborhood (Cleveland), Akron Innerbelt, Akron Northside Station, Opportunity Corridor (Cleveland), Summit Lake neighborhoods (Akron), Towpath Trail in Tremont (Cleveland)

3.1.5 The Valley Railway was built to haul mostly freight, much of which was coal. In the 1900s, Northeast Ohio’s largely unregulated industries like oil, steel, and rubber were closely tied to the rise of automobiles. The legacies of local industry and the railroad include vast greenhouse gas emissions and other forms of pollution.

Focus areas: Brandywine Falls and I-271, I-77 and Furnace Run Metro Park, Boston Mill Visitor Center wayside exhibit, Towpath Trail at the I-271 and I-80 bridges in Boston, Dr. Sylvia Hood Washington, Lee-Seville neighborhood (Cleveland), Akron Innerbelt, Akron Northside Station, Opportunity Corridor (Cleveland), Summit Lake neighborhoods (Akron), Tremont neighborhoods (Cleveland)

3.2 The Ohio & Erie Canal was one of the “internal improvements” that linked regions of the country and helped to establish a national economy in the early 1800s. Valley residents were impacted in various ways. New immigrants found work building and operating the canal. Early transportation networks economically tied Ohio to states built on enslaved labor.

3.2.1 With its main purpose to move freight, the canal was part of a global market revolution in the early 1800s. In time, some valley products such as cheese and stone were sold overseas.

Focus areas: Canal Exploration Center and Towpath Trail exhibits about the early industries in the valley and market changes, Deep Lock Quarry, Frazee House, Wallace family/Brandywine Falls, Hale Farm & Village, Welton Farm/Greenfield Berry Farm, many other Ohio & Erie Canalway sites, Boston Land and Manufacturing Company Store

3.2.2 Construction and operation of the canal provided work for immigrants, African Americans, and others who had fewer job opportunities. These workers labored in difficult conditions. Some settled permanently in and around the valley.

Focus areas: German and Irish laborers during canal construction, John Malvin, Ma Parker, Emily Wallace, female cooks, Canal Exploration Center exhibits, Towpath Trail

3.2.3 Many villages, towns, and cities owe their existence to the economic benefits of the canal and local natural resources. Some prospered more than others during the railroad and highway eras that followed.

Focus areas: Canal Exploration Center exhibits; Towpath Trail wayside exhibits; valley quarries/Deep Lock Quarry Metro Park; Moody & Thomas Mill; Alexander-Wilson Feed Mill; Cleveland; Independence; the villages of Boston, Peninsula, Everett, and Botzum; Akron; Cuyahoga Valley Scenic Railroad stations; many other Ohio & Erie Canalway sites

3.2.4 The canal gave many valley farmers access to distant markets and increased their property values. Other farmers saw their land divided or bypassed.

Focus areas: Canal Exploration Center; Stanford House; Gleason family; village of Brandywine; Towpath Trail wayside exhibits at Alexander- Wilson Mill, Frazee House, Lock 33, Boston Store, Lock 29, Moody and Thomas Mill site, Lock 27, Lock 26, Lock 25, and Lock 24, and Botzum Trailhead; Jim Brown; Boston Land and Manufacturing Company Store

3.3 The construction and operation of the Valley Railway brought employment opportunities and changes to valley communities. Today the Cuyahoga Valley Scenic Railroad provides increased access to the valley for recreation.

3.3.1 The Valley Railway was part of the broader Industrial Revolution that spurred new local businesses.

Focus areas: Cuyahoga Valley Scenic Railroad and the exhibits at its stations, Jaite Mill, Jaite/Park Headquarters, Cleveland-Akron Bag Company, Deep Lock Quarry Metro Park

3.3.2 The railroad offered employment opportunities for groups who faced discrimination.

Focus areas: Cuyahoga Valley Scenic Railroad and the exhibits at its stations, the Delgado family/Rockside Station and Hemlock Creek Trail areas, Harris family/Hardy House (Everett—closed to the public), female postal clerks

3.3.3 Cuyahoga Valley Scenic Railroad provides opportunities for diverse visitors, including those with disabilities, to access and enjoy the park via rail. It creates opportunities for multi-modal park visits. Ticket prices can be a barrier to people of limited means.

Focus areas: Cuyahoga Valley Scenic Railroad stations, bike/kayak/hike aboard service, possible extension to Cleveland

3.4 Humans and wildlife need to be able to move through safe corridors in order to thrive. Plants and their seeds travel along them too.

3.4.1 Various routes for recreation and transportation thread through Cuyahoga Valley National Park. They connect us to nearby cities and towns.

Focus areas: Cuyahoga River Water Trail, Towpath Trail, Ohio & Erie Canalway, Ohio to Erie Trail, Cuyahoga Valley Scenic Railroad, America’s Byway, Buckeye Trail, Valley Trail, Hemlock Creek Trail, Old Carriage Trail, Bike & Hike Trail, Valley Parkway, Cleveland Metroparks, Summit Metro Parks, Summit Lake, Canal Basin Park

3.4.2 From 1936-1966, the Green Book helped Black motorists safely navigate trips away from home during America’s Jim Crow period. Green Book era sites in Northeast Ohio were important places for Black leisure, entertainment, and travel. Several were in Cuyahoga Valley.

Focus areas: Camp Mueller, Lake Glen/Sa-Sa Lounge, Cabin Club/Drift-Inn, Kendall Lake, Green Book Cleveland

3.4.3 Most native animals benefit from connected habitat corridors, especially when adults seek new mates and young disperse to new territories. Some plants spread through these corridors too.

Focus areas: (see 5.3.6 for large forest tracts and 5.4.2 for riparian corridors)

3.4.4 Migratory wildlife rely on Northeast Ohio parks at certain times of year. They must find suitable habitat as they swim or fly between distant areas, and to sustain them at all stages of life.

Focus areas: American painted lady and monarch butterfly/Pine Hollow and Terra Vista, common green darner (dragonfly)/Beaver Marsh, hooded warbler/Ledges, bobolink and eastern meadowlark/Coliseum Meadow, bigmouth buffalo/Station Road Bridge area, lake sturgeon reintroduction project, salamander migration across Riverview Road, Mississippi Flyway

 

Theme 4: A Lived-In, Disputed Valley

Summary Narrative

Cuyahoga Valley National Park protects a large and diverse collection of more than 600 historic resources, cultural landscapes, and archeological sites. Over time, different cultures have harvested food, built homes and communities, raised families, practiced religious beliefs, and adapted to change. Patterns of land ownership and use, as well as family memories, still reflect this complex history.

Native Americans have endured warfare and colonization, including government removal and resettlement. The first travelers passed through here as the last Ice Age retreated and the Cuyahoga River formed. Later people settled this area, attracted by transportation routes and abundant resources. During the Woodland Period people had elaborate trade networks and buried their dead in ceremonial centers. During the Late Prehistoric Period, people may have lived in a time of conflict, building stockades around their villages. More upheaval came a century later. Tribes from other regions hunted, traded, and briefly settled here in mixed bands.

Europeans arrived in larger numbers by the mid-1700s. For a few years, the Cuyahoga River was part of America’s western boundary. Before Ohio became a state, the Connecticut Land Company surveyed and sold land parcels. Later Irish and German laborers helped build the Ohio & Erie Canal. The valley’s subsistence farmers transitioned to market agriculture. During the industrial boom, Northeast Ohio factories and railroads attracted waves of migrants, especially from Eastern Europe, the South, and Appalachia. In the 1970s and 80s, hundreds of valley residents were relocated to create the national park.

We preserve stories and resources so current and future generations can meaningfully connect to America’s diverse heritage. This work takes collaboration with Tribes and community members. Together, we can explore our common humanity, speak truthfully about past injustices, discuss differences respectfully, and unite around common goals.

Key Ideas and Focus Areas

4.1 Indigenous people have lived in Cuyahoga Valley for more than 500 generations. Over thousands of years, diverse cultures have harvested food, built homes and communities, raised families, practiced religious beliefs, and adapted to change. Some communities lasted for centuries while others were short term. Native Americans often settled near the river for access to water, food sources, transportation routes, and fertile soil.

4.1.1 Parks and museums mainly know about the “precontact” periods through archeology. Those who lived here during the Archaic, Woodland, and Whittlesey periods may have been one people whose culture changed with shifting social and environmental conditions. Their identity and fate are not documented in historical records but may be known through oral traditions.

Focus areas: Paleoindian People, Archaic People, Woodland People, Whittlesey People, Cuyahoga River and Prehistoric People wayside exhibit, Greenwood Village site, South Park village

4.1.2 The federally recognized Tribal Nations associated with Cuyahoga Valley arrived as refugees from the colonial warfare of the 1700s. They stayed for a time before US expansion drove them farther west.

Focus areas: Seneca-Cayuga Tribe of Oklahoma; Cayuga Nation of New York; Seneca Nation of New York; Tonawanda Band of Seneca Indians (New York); Delaware Nation (Oklahoma); Delaware Tribe of Indians (Oklahoma); Moravian Delaware of Canada; Ottawa Tribe (Oklahoma); Grand Traverse Band of Ottawa and Chippewa Indians (Michigan); Little River Band of Ottawa Indians (Michigan); Little Traverse Bay Bands of Odawa Indians (Michigan)

4.2 Waves of migration and displacement have brought changes to the valley’s communities for centuries, perhaps longer. Some new arrivals prospered. Others struggled, were forced to move on, or worse. The establishment of this national park set off yet another wave of displacement.

4.2.1 In the 1700s Native American refugees from other regions hunted, traded, and settled in Cuyahoga Valley in mixed bands. They faced many challenges: multiple wars, shifting alliances, broken treaties, forced removal, and the near-constant threat of violence. Beyond our valley, Tecumseh led a resistance movement based in the Ohio Country that came to a head during the War of 1812. Many villages suggested by folklore and 1700s maps have not been confirmed by archeology or traditional knowledge.

Focus areas: Cuyahoga Valley’s federally recognized Tribes (see list in 4.1.2), Pilgerruh, the Gnadenhutten Massacre, Delaware Nation at Moraviantown, Hopocan (Captain Pipe), Stigwanish, Ponty’s Camp, Delaware Chief Netawatwees’ village and perhaps Ostionish village (in or near Gorge and Sand Run metro parks), Seneca village (Silver Lake)

4.2.2 After the American Revolution, capitalism replaced indigenous economies. Land was divided and treated as a commodity. Connecticut sold its Western Reserve land to investors who, in turn, surveyed and sold it to New England settlers. This large territory included Cuyahoga Valley. For a few years, the Portage Path and Cuyahoga River were part of the United States’ western boundary. Suddenly, what had been an indigenous throughway became a political and cultural dividing line.

Focus areas: Connecticut Western Reserve, Connecticut Land Company, Frazee House, Stanford House, Hale Farm & Village, the historic David Hudson Trail, Treaties of Fort McIntosh (1785) and Greenville (1795), Thomas Hutchins survey parties, Moses Cleaveland survey parties

4.2.3 In the 1800s and 1900s, market agriculture and industrialization transformed the valley and brought new immigrants from Europe to live and work here.

Focus areas: The Botzum family, Conrad Botzum Farmstead, Botzum Trailhead, Jaite Mill, Jaite/Park Headquarters, Cleveland-Akron Bag Company, Boston Mill Visitor Center, Polish paper mill workers, Clara Muldowney, Daniel Biro/Point-Biro Farm, Szalay’s Farm & Market, some Cleveland settlement houses and neighborhood centers

4.2.4 The Great Migration brought an influx of African American southerners to Northeast Ohio in the early-to-mid 1900s. The first wave, largely from Alabama and Georgia, settled mostly in Cleveland. The second wave included Akron.

Focus areas: Jane Edna Hunter, Phillis Wheatley Association/Camp Mueller, the Harris-Lee-Duncan family, the Stokes family, Wheelock Cuyahoga Acres neighborhood (Cascade Valley Metro Park), Green Book Cleveland, some Cleveland settlement houses and neighborhood centers, Massillon sites

4.2.5 Beginning in the 1950s, more than 5,000 Native Americans resettled in Cleveland. This was part of a federal program that unsuccessfully tried to liquidate reservations.

Focus areas: Chief Thunderwater, Russell Means, Cleveland American Indian Center, Lake Erie Native American Council, Cleveland American Indian Movement, North American Indian Cultural Center

4.2.6 Beginning in the 1970s, hundreds of valley residents endured government removal as land was purchased to create the new national park. Initially the land acquisition process was managed by the US Army Corps of Engineers. Although most sellers agreed to the terms, many felt they did not have a choice. Only a small amount of park land was acquired through eminent domain, but valley residents justifiably felt threatened by the possibility.

Focus areas: A Green Shrouded Miracle; the Tonkin family/Beaver Marsh and Howe Meadow; villages of Boston, Peninsula, and Everett; Lily Fleder; Cuyahoga Valley Homeowners and Residents Association; Leonard Stein-Sapir/Gilson Campus of Cuyahoga Valley Environmental Education Center

4.3 Farming has been a vital part of valley life for over a thousand years, starting with Native Americans. Its economics changed in the 1800s with the ability to sell crops beyond the immediate area. Farming continues in the valley today, in part through the park’s farming program.

4.3.1 In the Woodland and Whittlesey “precontact” periods, farming and new crops allowed people to stay in one place for longer.

Focus areas: Woodland People, Whittlesey People, South Park village and agricultural fields, the Eastern Agricultural Complex (domesticated crops such as sunflower and goosefoot), companion plantings (squash, maize, and beans), wild foods, modern perspectives of affiliated federal Tribes

4.3.2 From the mid-1700s to the early 1800s, Native American refugee groups established villages and farmed in the valley.

Focus areas: Cuyahoga Valley’s federally recognized Tribes (see list in 4.1.2), Pilgerruh, Ottawa camp north of Boston, Old Cuyahoga Town (a Lenape camp north of Portage Path)

4.3.3 Western Reserve settlers and European immigrants began farming in the valley in the early 1800s. Some families continued this tradition over generations. At least two Black families lived and farmed here. The loss of privately owned farms due to park development is a sore point with some valley residents.

Focus areas: Helyn Fiedler-Toth, Hunt House, Everett village, Nathaniel Point, Point-Biro Farm/Keleman Point Farm, Stanford House, Hale Farm & Village, Conrad Botzum Farmstead, Waterman-Bishop Farm/Heritage Farms, Wetmore family, Elizabeth Hynton, Emily Wallace, the Harris-Lee-Duncan families, Duncan’s Farm, Frazee family

4.3.4 Agriculture continues in the valley today, in part through the park’s farming program. The national park’s interest in preserving our rural character can be at odds with our habitat restoration efforts. Leased farms provide examples of conservation-minded farming.

Focus areas: Leased farms and farmstands, Cuyahoga Valley Farmers Market, agricultural leases, private farms and agricultural businesses

 

Theme 5: A Natural Refuge Reimagined

Summary Narrative

Despite being intensely impacted by people, Cuyahoga Valley is home to a wide variety of native plants and wildlife. This natural diversity is explained by the valley’s complex geological history and location between the Great Lakes, Great Plains, and Appalachian Mountains. After the last Ice Age ended 10,000 years ago, most of Ohio became dense forest threaded with rivers and streams. Native Americans set wildfires to improve hunting and clear land to grow crops. By the 1800s, the fur trade decimated fur-bearing animals, especially beavers. Near Cuyahoga Valley, Western Reserve settlers organized hunts to slaughter wildlife that might prey on livestock or be pests. New species arrived on the coattails of migrating people. Within a century, Ohio had cleared much of its forest for timber, fuel, and agriculture. 

Starting in the 1920s, local efforts began to replant forests and preserve natural areas. Today, Cuyahoga Valley is the largest of these refuges. Parklands within this metropolitan area are becoming more interlinked. Many partners work to increase biodiversity and support natural processes. Together, we are creating better connected waterways that have a more natural flow and access to their wetlands and floodplains. We are restoring forests to be larger and more resilient in the face of pests and climate change. We are protecting rare habitats and helping rare species to recover. To make decisions, park scientists consider how things were in the past, what is happening now, and how conditions might be different in the future. The work takes continuous effort in the face of ongoing and emerging threats. We are cooperating to fix problems and create natural areas for people, plants, and wildlife.

Our successes in renewing nature within this industrial, metropolitan region are a source of community pride. They give us the hope and confidence to address a range of challenges, expanding our ideas about what is possible.

Key Ideas and Focus Areas

5.1 Natural areas in Cuyahoga Valley cannot be taken back in time. Our complex land use history has created unique combinations of plants and wildlife. The national park is woven into a large metropolitan area, not separate from it. Our work helps define the possibilities and challenges of “restoring” nature in an urban setting and planning for an uncertain future.

5.1.1 Biodiversity is an indicator of ecosystem health. One way that scientists can measure this is by monitoring for sensitive species. Diverse plants and insects are the foundation of resilient food webs. Most native wildlife species need specific native plants to survive. Habitat loss and fragmentation, non-native plants and pests, and climate change are the major threats.

Focus areas: Heartland Inventory and Monitoring Network, sentinel wetland monitoring, amphibian studies, wetland bird studies, Ohio EPA Cuyahoga River studies, Beaver Marsh, river otter, great blue heron, bald eagle, native river fish diversity, benthic stream and river insects, butterfly surveys, butterfly and moth biodiversity and their host plants (including the monarch-milkweed relationship), Terra Vista Natural Study Area, citizen and community science, Peg and Rob Bobel as citizen scientists, Audubon Society, Dwight and Ann Chasar and annual bird censuses

5.1.2 “Ecological disturbance” impacts habitat and species diversity. People have knowingly and unknowingly created disturbance in Ohio ecosystems for thousands of years. Disturbances can remove dominant species, resulting in major changes. Today’s habitats are unusual combinations of plants and wildlife that are more diverse than Ohio’s precontact forests.

Focus areas: Indigenous land management practices, industries that extract resources (such as logging, quarrying, agriculture, and mining), forest pests past and present, I-80 borrow pit, Coliseum Meadow, river floodplain, Indigo Lake

5.1.3 There are challenges and pitfalls in trying to define what is “native” and what is a “pest.” This is especially true in the face of climate change. The ranges of some species are shifting in a warming world.

Focus areas: the Resist-Accept-Direct (RAD) framework, black locust, coyote, white-tailed deer, common reed, Carolina hemlock

5.1.4 “Restoration” implies a return to prior conditions. This is impossible. The climate is changing. Some wildlife and plant populations tend to take over, becoming invasive. We cannot manage them all. Given these challenges, we still aim to preserve and enhance biodiversity and natural processes. We want our “restored” habitats to be resilient over time.

Focus areas: forest restoration projects and experiments such as the Dover site, the Resist-Accept-Direct (RAD) framework, Wetmore habitat restoration, Ledges habitat restoration, autumn olive, common reed, narrowleaf cattail, garlic mustard, invasive plant removal sites such as Terra Vista Natural Study Area, Japanese knotweed, Japanese stiltgrass, habitat restoration volunteers

5.1.5 Parks cannot protect biodiversity if they are green islands in a sea of development. Wildlife needs to move across human boundaries. People can help by landscaping with native plants, promoting sustainable practices, and getting involved in land-use planning throughout the watershed. One measure of success is the percentage of tree canopy in an area. Redlined communities have the least. Adding native trees in the right places has benefits, including more shade in a warming world.

Focus areas: Cleveland Tree Coalition, Soil and Water Conservation Districts, Sustainable Cleveland, Summit of Sustainability Alliance, author Doug Tallamy/Homegrown National Park, Summit Metro Parks’ Wild Back Yards program, Watershed Stewardship Center, native plant nurseries, local and regional tree plans

5.2 Populations of native plants and animals can crash relatively quickly. Human activities, intentional or not, are often the cause. Some can recover through natural processes while others require human help. Others may be lost forever. Cleaning up legacy pollution also benefits people.

5.2.1 The fur trade during the 1700s decimated populations of fur-bearing animals in what is now Ohio. Overhunting accelerated as more people moved west. Locally, Western Reserve settlers organized hunts to kill all “pests.” Some species were extirpated from Ohio for over a century. Wildlife began returning as early as the 1930s. Reintroduction efforts by the state began in the 1950s.

Focus areas: American beaver, François Saguin’s trading post near Tinkers Creek, the Great Hinckley Hunt, black bear, bobcat, white-tailed deer, wild turkey, eastern massasauga rattlesnake, Beaver Marsh

5.2.2 Waves of disease and invasive species have swept through Ohio forests and other habitats for at least a century. Their impacts are now magnified by climate change. Some disturbances create opportunities for other animals to thrive.

Focus areas: American chestnut blight, emerald ash borer, spongy moth, beech-leaf disease, white-nose syndrome, northern long-eared bat, Ice Box Cave, Ledges forest, hemlock woolly adelgid, spotted lantern fly, blue-winged warbler and red-headed woodpecker in new successional growth

5.2.3 Pesticides and other industrial chemicals have had lasting impacts on wildlife and ecosystems, both locally and nationally. When policies and practices change, recovery is possible. Reducing and containing chemical spills, and cleaning up toxic materials benefits many forms of life—including people—in the park and downstream.

Focus areas: DDT, bald eagle, catfish tumors, insect population decline, monarch butterfly, Cuyahoga River, Station Road Bridge area, John Krejci and Krejci Dump, Jaite Mill, Akron Water Treatment, mercury use at Brandywine Golf Course, (see 2.4)

5.2.4 Many partners work together to successfully reintroduce native wildlife and plants. Our efforts have had many successes. As conditions improve, there are more opportunities to enhance biodiversity.

Focus areas: freshwater mussels, rare freshwater pond fish, lake sturgeon, river otter, bobcat, wild turkey, peregrine falcon, trumpeter swan, Cuyahoga River, Beaver Marsh, American chestnut

5.3 Since precontact times, people have cleared woody plants using fire and tools. Most of Ohio was deforested by agriculture and industry during the mid-1800s, accelerated by the canal system. Forests can recover through natural processes and human help.

5.3.1 The idea of a pre-European American wilderness is a myth that the national park can help debunk. Indigenous peoples have long managed the landscape for their own needs.

Focus areas: wildfire as a habitat management tool, white-tailed deer, South Park village and agricultural fields, modern perspectives of affiliated Federal Tribes

5.3.2 By the mid-1800s, the valley was mostly deforested to expand farms and feed sawmills and papermills. Cut wood was used for building materials and fuel. Although some farmers kept small woodlots, few trees remained.

Focus areas: Jaite Mill, Jaite/Park Headquarters, Akron-Cleveland Bag Company, Boston Mill Visitor Center, Red Lock Trailhead/Lock 34, Moses Cleaveland trees

5.3.3 Local reforestation efforts began at least as early as the 1920s, during the formation of the metropolitan park districts. Eugene Cranz operated an experimental tree farm in Ira. Conservation became a national priority in the 1930s. Recent priorities to restore the Great Lakes and make cities more climate resilient have reinvigorated large-scale tree planting. Some leased farms are creating edible forests.

Focus areas: Civilian Conservation Corps, “wormy” chestnut buildings at Virginia Kendall and Camp Manatoc, pine and spruce plantations, scientific farming and forestry, American chestnut, Eugene Cranz (Hammond-Cranz Farm), Fred Kelly, Harold Wagner/Akron Metropolitan Park District, Ledges, Kendall Lake, Everett tree nursery, Pine Lane Trailhead, Wentworth Goodson Marshall (Rocky Run Farm/Old Carriage Trail), habitat restoration volunteer, the Great Lakes Restoration Initiative (GLRI), purplebrown farmstead, permaculture, Cleveland Tree Coalition, Akron Tree Plan

5.3.4 Old fields naturally return to forest in time through a process called “habitat succession.” Healthy, biodiverse forests have various plant layers.

Focus areas: pioneer species, mature forest species, Oak Hill area, Pine Hollow, Wetmore area, other former farm fields, white-tailed deer, rock harlequin, drooping wood sedge, silvery sedge, hooded warbler in closed canopy, prairie warbler in early successional growth, Ledges Trail

5.3.5 In certain places, park scientists recommend interrupting habitat succession. For example, we use prescribed burns and other techniques to control invasive plants and maintain open habitat for rare species. Likewise, we mow lawns and fields to maintain cultural resources, meadows, and playfields.

Focus areas: park scientists, controlled wildfire, autumn olive, bobolink, eastern meadowlark, Henslow’s sparrow, Coliseum Meadow, Terra Vista Natural Study Area, I-80 borrow pit

5.3.6 The national park works to restore larger, more connected tracts of forest which are important for various wildlife species. In some cases, this is achieved by connecting to metro park property and other protected greenspace outside park boundaries. Sensitive wildlife needs large tracts without trails or roads. Parks may limit public access to certain areas to protect vulnerable wildlife and plants.

Focus areas: ovenbird, brown-headed cowbird, habitat restoration volunteers, native tree nursery, Everett Covered Bridge area, Wetmore area, habitat restoration volunteers

5.4 For more than a century, development has altered, polluted, and disconnected the Cuyahoga River watershed. Local waterways and wetlands can recover through natural processes and human help.

5.4.1 Water runs downhill, picking up and depositing sediment and other materials. Healthy waterways have room to meander and to overflow their banks. People began altering the flow of water and sediment within the Cuyahoga River watershed during the canal era. Today the national park and its partners work together to restore a slower, more natural flow. We are removing dams, lowering and stabilizing riverbanks, restoring streams and wetlands, and reconnecting the watershed. As a park, we must balance these goals with our need to protect historic resources and critical infrastructure.

Focus areas: Cuyahoga River, Station Road Bridge area, Brecksville Diversion Dam, Pinery Feeder Dam, canal infrastructure and engineering of waterways, Village of Peninsula’s peninsula and dam, Gorge Dam, Kendall Lake dam, channelizing/levees near Szalay’s, Stanford Run stream restoration project, riverbank stabilization projects protecting Cuyahoga Valley Scenic Railroad and Towpath Trail infrastructure near the Cuyahoga River, Elaine Marsh, Peg and Rob Bobel, human beaver project, US Army Corps of Engineers, Stanford Run restoration project, Beaver Marsh, mitigation wetland projects near Pleasant Valley Road, Valley View Area restoration in Cascade Valley Metro Park, see 2.1

5.4.2 Improving the quality of aquatic habitats benefits native wildlife. Healthy, interconnected waterways edged by “riparian” habitat provide connected corridors for wildlife and human movement.

Focus areas: Cuyahoga River, Ohio water trails, Station Road Bridge, Peninsula/Lock 29 area, Tinkers Creek, Furnace Run, Everett Covered Bridge, Haskell Run, Boston Run, Fawn Pond, Beaver Marsh, Bath Road Heronry, rainbow darter, northern hogsucker, bigmouth buffalo, central mudminnow, American brook lamprey, mayfly, stonefly, dobsonfly, star-nosed mole, Louisiana waterthrush, bald eagle, great blue heron, wood frog, American beaver, river otter, ribbon snake, tri-colored bat

5.4.3 Farming practices such as installing dams and drainage tiles have negative impacts on Ohio streams and wetlands. Leased farms use sustainable farming practices and educate the public about their benefits.

Focus areas: Stanford House area, Pittenger Farm/Wetmore Trailhead, leased farms, cover crops, permaculture

5.4.4 Efforts to control erosion and sediment flowing into the Cuyahoga ramped up in the 1970s and continue today. Without good planning, development increases the speed and volume of storm water. This creates destructive flash flooding downstream. Many streams in the national park are impacted by upstream development outside our boundaries. Everyone in the watershed can help by using best practices in storm water management.

Focus areas: 1970-1985 Cuyahoga River study by the US Army Corps of Engineers, Louis Stokes, Brandywine Creek and Falls, Tinkers Creek, Little Cuyahoga, Furnace Run, Chippewa Creek, West Creek, Watershed Stewardship Center, topsoil removal near Station and Pleasant Valley roads, cars in the riverbank near Jaite, Elaine Marsh, Lake Erie and Cuyahoga River dredging in Cleveland

5.4.5 Climate change impacts stream and river health. This means more precipitation, higher water temperatures, and greater storm intensity. We also expect more flooding and erosion that damages park infrastructure and disrupts park operations. The park is planning and adapting with this in mind.

Focus areas: Brandywine Creek culvert project, Stanford Run stream restoration project, Towpath Trail, Cuyahoga Valley Scenic Railroad, Boston Store parking lot project