Supreme Allied Commander: Eisenhower and the Planning for D-Day

General Dwight D. Eisenhower, June 7, 1944

National Archives and Records Administration

During the “Big Three” conference in Tehran which took place from November 28 to December 1, 1943, Premier Joseph Stalin was skeptical of President Franklin Roosevelt and Prime Minister Winston Churchill’s assurances that a cross-channel invasion of France was their primary objective in Spring 1944. Stalin desperately wanted Nazi Germany to face a second front in Europe. This cross-channel invasion would be code named Operation Overlord.

Stalin insisted on naming a Supreme Allied Commander for Operation Overlord, and Roosevelt assured him a decision would be made in a few days. President Roosevelt decided on December 7, 1943, to appoint General Dwight D. Eisenhower as the Supreme Allied Commander. In a folksy and brief statement, Roosevelt informed Eisenhower that “Well, Ike, you are going to command Overlord.”

With those few words, the stage was prepared for General Eisenhower. He was tasked with planning and implementing an unprecedented and enormous military operation that involved numerous land, air, and sea forces. While the Eisenhower of December 7, 1941, was not ready for this job, the Eisenhower of 1944 was exquisitely prepared for it. He was ready for greatness.

As 1944 began, Eisenhower was torn between his personal and professional life. On New Years Day, he was in route to Washington D.C. After receiving his new command, he had instead wanted to travel immediately to London to commence preparation for Operation Overlord. Chief of Staff, General George Marshall, had to order Eisenhower to return home. Marshall knew that Eisenhower was in serious need of some rest and relaxation and had been apart from his wife Mamie since June 1942. Though Eisenhower, wanted to relax and spend time with Mamie, there was a war to win. His duty was to his country.

The Eisenhower who arrived in London in January 1944 was mature, flexible and tough. He had clearly learned his lessons from mistakes and errors previously made in North Africa and the Mediterranean. During 1942 and 1943, Eisenhower refined and sharpened his leadership skills. His highly developed leadership skills prepared him for making difficult decisions during the lead up to the invasion on June 6, 1944, known to history as D-Day. The responsibility of tough and weighty decisions rested solely on his shoulders, and there was no doubt that he was the boss.

By the time he arrived in London in 1944, General Eisenhower had perfected several leadership skills that became crucial, not just for his personal success, but for the success of Allied Forces.Chiefly among them, was his developed sense of self-confidence. If he held reservations or concerns about planning, he gave the outward appearance of self-confidence, and did not share his doubt. His self-confidence was contagious to senior officers and junior enlisted men alike, which fostered trust among his subordinates.

His confidence also enabled him to learn and grow from criticism- from himself, and from others. Understanding and recognizing his mistakes, the Eisenhower of 1944 evaluated and learned from them. He maintained a continuous quality review and improvement of his decisions. As the Supreme Commander of Allied Forces, Eisenhower did not blame subordinates for his bad decisions, and instead, valued team members who stated and argued their opinions. He accepted criticism from his direct reports, and no longer picked or kept officers just because they were longtime friends, or West Point classmates. Eisenhower knew how to select and assemble a team of deputies, and share the spotlight with them.

His developed and expanded natural charisma allowed him to connect with anyone. Citizen soldiers knew they had a considerate leader, and many saw themselves reflected in Eisenhower’s humble upbringing . The men were willing to follow Eisenhower’s plan. Allied forces, and Allied leaders alike respected their supreme commander. Eisenhower had not only become a top general, but by January of 1944, a talented diplomat and politician as well. The British military and civilian population developed a liking to Eisenhower. He was trusted and admired by most British. While he could have intense arguments with Churchill, they still respected each other. Eisenhower was one of the few men who could work with Charles de Gaulle.

In taking the big picture into account, he gathered relevant information and carefully weighed consequences and unintended consequences of decision making. A supreme leader could not be consumed by only one problem or one issue at a time. During the planning for Operation Overlord, Eisenhower handled problems simultaneously, with a comprehensive focus in planning.

If Eisenhower had not adequately procured his leadership talents, his decisions would have been questionable. Decision making, and implementing was a crucial aspect of his new role, and with the eyes of the world upon him, there was little room for error.

Several key decisions rested on Eisenhower’s shoulders as D-Day grew nearer. Equipped with the fine tuned and honed skills of an exceptional leader, the Supreme Commander of Allied Forces began to make his moves.

First, Eisenhower chose to move his operational headquarters to Telegraph Cottage outside of the hustle and bustle of London. At Telegraph Cottage, he could work diligently without constant interruptions. The peace and quiet of the cottage most importantly allowed Eisenhower the environment to think deeply. The cottage staff quickly became Eisenhower’s military family, who excelled at providing a stress- and trouble-free atmosphere for the general.

With the perfect workspace, his focus could be entirely dedicated to the invasion itself, including where, when, and how the cross-channel landing would take place. Calais, France was the shortest distance from Dover, England, but Germans were heavily fortified and positioned at Calais. Eisenhower settled on the Normandy coast of France. With fewer fortifications and Germans soldiers, and no major ports, the Normandy coast was also reasonable distance from the English coast.

After consulting experts familiar with the English Channel, Eisenhower could begin making decisions on the timing of the Normandy invasion. Five beaches would be invaded at dawn, it was decided, so soldiers could the advantage of darkness as they landed. With the physical locations settled, and the best time of day agreed upon, the conversation shifted to precisely when this massive invasion would take place. While an initial invasion date was set for May 1, 1944, Eisenhower made a decision to postpone the assault to June 5, 1944. According to experts on the conditions of the English Channel, an armada of landing craft numbering in the thousands would be essential to the success of the operation. The quantity of landing craft in that range could not be achieved by the initial May 1 invasion date. With regard to expert opinion and maximizing success, June was a much more promising opportunity. By June 5, Allies would have adequate amounts of landing craft.

Feeling that it was imperative to continue building trust among those who served under him, Eisenhower chose to allot 1/3 of his incredibly valuable time to visit the troops. Soldiers responded very well to Eisenhower’s visits, valuing the opportunity to come face to face with the man about to order them to invade Nazi occupied France. Eisenhower understood that his massive operational planning would only work of the citizen soldiers implemented it, and acted on it without hesitation. Their determination, and actions were essential for the success of this invasion.

Among the details Eisenhower had to decide on, he also had to consider how to deal with his old friend George Patton. The unrestrained Patton caused problems for Eisenhower in Sicily and England due to his conduct toward soldiers and his unfiltered remarks. Under a lot of heat and pressure to relieve Patton of his command, Eisenhower knew Patton was too good of a field commander to fire. Ultimately, in order to deceive the Germans and still utilize one of his better combat commanders, Ike kept Patton on as a decoy until his fighting skills were needed in France.

Despite advice from his deputy, General Trafford Leigh-Mallory, Eisenhower also approved the use of paratroopers and gliders. Casualties, he was advised, could be as high as 70%. The risk of not using them, Eisenhower surmised, would pose a greater threat to the invasion’s success, than cancelling their participation. Understanding and accepting the projected casualty percentages, Eisenhower again chose to spend time with the men essential to victory. On the eve of D-Day, he visited with men of the 101st Airborne, paratroopers, who were just minutes away from boarding airplanes and invading France.

The final, and most time-sensitive of Eisenhower’s crucial decision in the moments leading to D-Day, was whether or not to proceed with the invasion in the face of fickle weather. Due to the complex nature of the invasion—with forces arriving by air and by sea—adverse weather conditions could severely impact the operation. On the morning of June 4, a bad weather forecast caused Eisenhower to postpone the invasion 24 hours. Early on the morning of June 5, Eisenhower met with his commanders and Group Captain Stagg. The forecast looked like there was a window for them to go ahead with the invasion. Despite the risk of the weather changing, Eisenhower said to his deputies, “O,K. Let’s go.”

Shortly after Eisenhower gave the order to proceed to his direct reports, he issued the “Order of the Day” for June 6, 1944. With the decision to move forward having been made, D-Day was now out of his hands, and on the shoulders of over 160,000 brave soldiers, sailors, and airmen. Through months of planning and decisions, Eisenhower’s leadership skills and decision-making talents were being tested on the greatest military proving ground. What if it all failed? Who would be responsible? As the man responsible for its success, Eisenhower was also prepared to be the one responsible for its failure. An “in Case of Failure Letter” remained in his pocket, as he waited, with the rest of the free world, for results.