Article

Climate and Water Monitoring at Carlsbad Caverns National Park: Water Year 2022

Carlsbad Caverns National Park

Desert grasses and shrubs on top of flat-topped mountains under wispy clouds.
Carlsbad Caverns National Park

NPS

Overview

Together, climate and hydrology shape ecosystems and the services they provide, particularly in arid and semi-arid ecosystems. Understanding changes in climate, groundwater, and surface water is key to assessing the condition of park natural resources—and often, cultural resources.

At Carlsbad Caverns National Park (Figure 1), Chihuahuan Desert Inventory and Monitoring Network scientists study how ecosystems may be changing by taking measurements of key resources, or “vital signs,” year after year—much as a doctor keeps track of a patient’s vital signs. This long-term ecological monitoring provides early warning of potential problems, allowing managers to mitigate them before they become worse. At Carlsbad Caverns National Park, we monitor climate and springs, among other vital signs.

Surface-water conditions are closely related to climate conditions. Because they are better understood together, we report on climate in conjunction with water resources. Reporting is by water year (WY), which begins in October of the previous calendar year and goes through September of the water year (e.g., WY2022 runs from October 2021 through September 2022). This article reports the results of climate and water monitoring at Carlsbad Caverns National Park (Figure 1) in WY2022.

Map of Carlsbad Caverns National Park showing the monitored weather station in the northeast section of the park.
Figure 1. Monitored weather station at Carlsbad Caverns National Park.

NPS

Climate and Weather

There is often confusion over the terms “weather” and “climate.” In short, weather describes instantaneous meteorological conditions (e.g., it’s currently raining or snowing, it’s a hot or frigid day). Climate reflects patterns of weather at a given place over longer periods of time (seasons to years). Climate is the primary driver of ecological processes on earth. Climate and weather information provide context for understanding the status or condition of other park resources.

Methods

A National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Cooperative Observer Program (NOAA COOP) weather station, Carlsbad Caverns (#291480) has been operational at Carlsbad Caverns National Park since 1935 (Figure 1). This station typically provides a reliable climate dataset. However, in WY2022 the station was missing data for the entire year. As a substitute, climate analyses in this year’s report use 30-year averages (1991–2020) and gridded surface meteorological (GRIDMET) data from the location of the station near the visitor center. Subsequent reports may revert to the weather stations as the data source depending on future data quality.

GRIDMET is a spatial climate dataset at a 4-kilometer resolution that is interpolated using weather station data, topography, and other observational and modeled land surface data. Temperature and precipitation estimated from GRIDMET may vary from actual weather at a particular location depending on the availability of weather station data and the difference in elevation between the location of interest and that assigned to a grid cell. Data from both weather stations and GRIDMET are accessible through Climate Analyzer.

Rain falling from dark clouds over a grassy desert with scattered shrubs.
Stormy weather at Carlsbad Caverns National Park

NPS

Results for Water Year 2022

Precipitation

Annual precipitation at Carlsbad Caverns National Park in WY2022 was 11.98″ (30.4 cm; Figure 2), 2.73″ (6.9 cm) less than the 1991–2020 annual average. This precipitation deficit occurred primarily from October through May, months that either received no rainfall or substantially less rainfall than the 1991–2020 monthly averages. Overall, the monsoon season (June–September) was wetter than average; both June and August received approximately twice the average monthly precipitation, 1.42″ (3.6 cm) and 1.89″ (4.8 cm) more than average, respectively.

Air temperature

The mean annual maximum temperature at Carlsbad Caverns National Park in WY2022 was 76.9°F (25.0°C), 1.4°F (0.8°C) above the 1991–2020 average. The mean annual minimum temperature in WY2022 was 54.7°F (12.6°C), 3.6°F (2.0°C) above the 1991–2020 average. Mean monthly minimum temperatures were warmer than the 1991–2020 monthly averages in every month except February and differed by as much as 14.1°F (7.8°C; see December as an example; Figure 2). Mean monthly maximum temperatures were more variable relative to the 1991–2020 monthly averages.

Bar and line graph showing precipitation totals in water year 2022 are lower than the long-term averages except in June and August. Min temps are warmer than average except February and Max temps oscillate above and below average.
Figure 2. Climogram showing monthly precipitation and mean maximum and minimum air temperatures in water year (WY) 2022 and the 1991–2020 averages at Carlsbad Caverns National Park. Data Source: climateanalyzer.org.

NPS

Drought

Reconnaissance drought index (Tsakiris and Vangelis 2005) provides a measure of drought severity and extent relative to the long-term climate. It is based on the ratio of average precipitation to average potential evapotranspiration (the amount of water loss that would occur from evaporation and plant transpiration if the water supply was unlimited) over short periods of time (seasons to years). The reconnaissance drought index for Carlsbad Caverns National Park indicates that WY2022 was drier than the 1991–2022 average from the perspective of both precipitation and potential evapotranspiration (Figure 3).

Reference: Tsakiris G., and H. Vangelis. 2005. Establishing a drought index incorporating evapotranspiration. European Water 9: 3–11.

Bar graph showing that water year 2022 was drier than the long-term average. The drought index oscillates between wetter and dryer every few years over the course of monitoring.
Figure 3. Reconnaissance drought index for Carlsbad Caverns National Park in water years (WY) 1991–2022. Drought index calculations are relative to the time period selected (1990–2022). Choosing a different set of start/end points may produce different results. Data source: GRIDMET via climateanalyzer.org.

NPS

Springs

Background

Springs, seeps, and tinajas (small pools in a rock basin or impoundments in bedrock) are small, relatively rare biodiversity hotspots in arid lands. They are the primary connection between groundwater and surface water and are important water sources for plants and animals. For springs, the most important questions we ask are about persistence (How long was there water in the spring?) and water quantity (How much water was in the spring?). Springs reporting is by water year (WY), which begins in October of the previous calendar year and goes through September of the current calendar year (e.g., WY2022 runs from October 2021 through September 2022). Springs sampling for WY2022 at Carlsbad Caverns National Park occurred between 06 March and 19 March 2022, except for water persistence, which is monitored continuously throughout the water year.

List of Springs

Scroll down or click on a spring below to view monitoring results.

Iron Pipe Seep ǀ Oak Spring ǀ Slaughter Pot Hole ǀ Upper East Grammer Spring ǀ Upper Lechuguilla Spring ǀ Upper Lowe Ranch Spring

A slope with shrubs and trees and areas of open ground with scattered rocks and dried plants. A small spring emerges from the hillside in an area with some small, green plants.
Figure 4. Iron Pipe Seep at Carlsbad Caverns National Park, March 2022.

NPS

WY2022 Findings at Iron Pipe Seep

Iron Pipe Seep (Figure 4 above) is a rheocrene spring (a spring that emerges into one or more stream channels) located below a rock outcrop, high on an east-facing ridge overlooking West Slaughter Canyon. Cool, clear water flows from a historical one-inch-diameter iron pipe protruding a few inches from the hillside. Grasses, shrubs, and junipers dot the area immediately surrounding the spring. The spring creates a small channel, flowing out of the pipe and down the slope for about 7 m. The WY2022 visit occurred on 19 March 2022, and the spring contained water.

Site Condition

Iron Pipe Seep was rated moderately disturbed by flow modification because of the iron pipe, which concentrates and directs flow within the seep. The spring was also slightly disturbed by wildlife (extensive wildlife tracks and digging by what appeared to be javelina). No other natural or human-caused disturbances were observed at Iron Pipe Seep in WY2022.

Consistent with previous years, we did not observe invasive aquatic animals (e.g., crayfish or American bullfrogs [Lithobates catesbeianus]), and we did not observe any non-native plants at Iron Pipe Spring. We did observe two obligate/facultative wetland plants: sedges (Cyperaceae) and rushes (Juncaceae; observed for the first time since 2018).

Water Quantity

Temperature sensors indicated that Iron Pipe Seep was wetted (contained water) for 170 out of 170 days (100%) measured up to the WY2022 visit (Figure 5). In prior water years, the spring was wetted 6.1–64.7% of the days measured.

Area chart of water persistence showing the spring was intermittently wetted with longer dry periods during the summer months. Water year 2021 experienced increased periods of water persistence. Data are missing for all of water year 2017 and through Apri
Figure 5. Water persistence in Iron Pipe Seep, Carlsbad Caverns National Park.

NPS

Discharge was estimated at 0.3 (± 0.0) L/min (0.1 ± 0.0 gal/min) in WY2022—this was above the high end of the range estimated in previous years (Table 1). Wetted extent was evaluated using the method for flowing water. The total brook length was 7.2 m (23.6 ft). Width and depth averaged 27.8 cm (10.9 in), and 0.5 cm (0.2 in), respectively. Wetted extent depth, width, and length were within the range of previous values, but width and length were on the high end of the range (Table 2).

Water Quality

Core water quality and water chemistry data were collected at the primary sampling location at Iron Pipe Seep in WY2022. The value for pH was slightly higher than the range of prior values, while dissolved oxygen, specific conductivity, temperature, and total dissolved solids were within the ranges of prior measurements (Table 3). Potassium was slightly lower than the prior range of values, and alkalinity, calcium, chloride, magnesium, and sulphate were all within the ranges of values in previous years (Table 4).

Iron Pipe Seep Data Tables

Small pool and stream of water at the bottom of shallow desert canyon that is covered in dormant grasses and shrubs.
Figure 6. Oak Spring at Carlsbad Caverns National Park, March 2022. The ground cover is dominated by bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon), a non-native plant.

NPS

WY2022 Findings at Oak Spring

Oak Spring (Figure 6 above) is a rheocrene spring (a spring that emerges into one or more stream channels) originating from multiple orifices in an east-facing drainage about 1 km northwest of the Carlsbad Caverns Visitor Center. Most of the flow at Oak Spring seeps from a limestone shelf on the side of the drainage, but water also emerges from the bottom of the canyon and from distinct orifices along the grassy banks of the channel. The WY2022 visit occurred on 06 March 2022, and the spring contained water.

Site Condition

Consistent with previous years, we rated Oak Spring as moderately disturbed by the flow modification caused by an older dam structure. Also consistent with past visits, the spring was moderately disturbed by wildlife (digging and evidence of extensive trails and scat), slightly disturbed by trespass cattle (cow dung and evidence of grazing) and by previous fire (charred trees and stumps in the vicinity of the springbrook). For the first time, we noted slight disturbance from flooding in the form of wrack and other woody debris in and around the pools. No other natural or human-caused disturbances were observed at Oak Spring in WY2022.

We did not observe invasive aquatic animals (e.g., crayfish or American bullfrogs [Lithobates catesbeianus]) in Oak Spring. There were scattered patches of the non-native perennial herb horehound (Marrubium vulgare) in a dense matrix of the non-native, sod-forming Bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon), which dominated the areas around the pools and channel as in past years. Johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense)—an introduced perennial grass from Asia and Africa—was detected in scattered patches for the first time at Oak Spring in WY2022. Oak Spring has some of the highest densities of non-native plants of the perennial springs monitored in the Chihuahuan and Sonoran Desert parks. Consistent with past years, we observed sedges (Carex sp.) and rushes (Juncaceae)— obligate wetland plants—at Oak Spring in WY2022.

Water Quantity

Oak Spring was wetted when we visited the site. However, because the sensor failed, we were unable to determine the extent it was wetted during WY2022. In prior water years, the spring was wetted 77.5–100% of the days measured (Figure 7).

Area chart of water persistence showing the spring was wetted during the measured period except summer 2019 when it was mostly dry. Data are missing from October 2017 to April 2018 and April 2020 through Sept. 2022, except for April 2021, which was wet.
Figure 7. Water persistence in Oak Spring, Carlsbad Caverns National Park.

NPS

Discharge was not measured in WY2022 because there was no surface flow (Table 5). Wetted extent at Oak Spring was evaluated using a method for flowing water. The total brook length was 13.1 m (43.0 ft). Width and depth averaged 30.6 cm (12.0 in), and 0.6 cm (0.2 in), respectively. All wetted extent parameters measured at Oak Spring in WY2022 were within the range of past observations (Table 6).

Water Quality

Core water quality (Table 7) and water chemistry (Table 8) data were collected at the primary sampling location at Oak Spring. The values for specific conductivity, total dissolved solids, and water temperature were within ranges of prior values, while dissolved oxygen and pH were below the ranges previously recorded. Alkalinity, calcium, chloride, potassium, and sulphate were within ranges of prior values, while magnesium was higher. The WY2022 values and ranges of prior values are presented in the tables below.

Oak Spring Data Tables

Pool in a large rock basin with a crew member crouched down above the pool pointing toward spring orifice on one side of the pool.
Figure 8. Slaughter Pot Hole at Carlsbad Caverns National Park, March 2022.

NPS

WY2022 Findings at Slaughter Pot Hole

Slaughter Pot Hole (Figure 8 above) is a tinaja (small pool in a rock basin or an impoundment in bedrock) located in the upper elevations of the Slaughter Canyon drainage. The north, east, and west sides of the pool have sloping, 2–4 m tall slickrock walls, and the southwest side has a gentler slope that gives way to a dry gravel and sand channel. The WY2022 visit occurred on 07 March 2022, and the spring contained water.

Site Condition

As in past years, we rated Slaughter Pot Hole as slightly disturbed due to a nearby hiking trail, but for the first time we rated it as slightly disturbed by flooding (evidence of recent flooding, including flood debris in the surrounding area). No other natural or human-caused disturbances were observed at Slaughter Pot Hole in WY2022.

Consistent with past years, we did not observe invasive aquatic animals (e.g., crayfish or American bullfrogs [Lithobates catesbeianus]) in WY2022, nor did we detect any non-native plants. As in past years, we also did not detect any obligate or facultative wetland plants at Slaughter Pot Hole.

Water Quantity

The water temperature sensor deployed to measure spring persistence was missing when we visited the site, and we believe it may have been swept away or buried in a major flow event. A new temperature sensor was deployed, but persistence data from April 2021–March 2022 are missing due to this loss. In prior water years, the spring was wetted 46.2–100% of the days measured (Figure 9).

Area chart of water persistence showing significant missing data, including March 2017–April 2018, July 2018–April 2019, and April 2021 through water year 2022. The tinaja was persistently wetted outside of those times, except January 2021–April 2021.
Figure 9. Water persistence in Slaughter Pot Hole, Carlsbad Caverns National Park.

NPS

As in past years, there was no measurable discharge. Wetted extent was evaluated using the method for standing water. Width averaged 167.0 cm (65.7 in), length averaged 244.7 cm (96.3 in), and depth averaged 84.0 cm (33.1 in)—all within the range observed in past measurements of Slaughter Pot Hole (Table 9).

Water Quality

Core water quality (Table 10) and water chemistry (Table 11) data were collected at the primary sampling location at Slaughter Pot Hole in WY2022. Dissolved oxygen, specific conductivity, and total dissolved solids were within the ranges of prior values, while the value for pH was higher than the range previously observed, and water temperature was lower. Alkalinity, calcium, chloride, and potassium were within the ranges of prior values, while magnesium was slightly lower, and sulphate was higher. The WY2022 values along with the ranges of prior values are presented in the tables below.

Slaughter Pot Hole Data Tables

A wet area in a drainage surrounded by bedrock and sparse shrubs and grasses. The channel next to the wet area is dry and then wet again a little below it.
Figure 10. Upper East Grammer Spring at Carlsbad Caverns National Park, March 2022.

NPS

WY2022 Findings at Upper East Grammer Spring

Upper East Grammer Spring (Figure 10 above) is a rheocrene spring (a spring that emerges into one or more stream channels) located in a south-facing side drainage of Walnut Canyon, approximately 2 km from the Carlsbad Caverns Visitor Center. The spring emerges from a rounded limestone bedrock seam inside the channel, seeping just enough to create a damp algae-covered area. After a few meters, the brook flows in a diffuse fashion over a bedrock slab before going subsurface intermittently over the next 40 m. The WY2022 visit occurred on 07 March 2022, and the spring contained water.

Site Condition

In WY2022, we rated Upper East Grammer Spring as moderately disturbed by grazing and vegetation trampling (by non-native Barbary sheep based on tracks and scat) and slightly disturbed by recent flooding (woody debris in and around the spring and thick sedimentation within the pools). No other natural or human-caused disturbances were observed at Upper East Grammer Spring in WY2022.

Consistent with previous years, we did not observe invasive aquatic animals (e.g., crayfish or the American Bullfrog [Lithobates catesbeianus]) at Upper East Grammer Spring. As in the past, patches of non-native bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon) were detected, with patch sizes increasing from WY2021. As in past years, we observed two obligate wetland plants—maidenhair fern (Adiantum sp.) and sedge (Carex sp.)—and one facultative wetland plant, bluestem grass (Andropogon sp.).

Water Quantity

Temperature sensors indicated that Upper East Grammer Spring was wetted (contained water) for 158 of 158 days (100%) measured up to the WY2022 visit (Figure 11). In prior water years, the spring was wetted 97.5–100% of the days measured.

Area chart of water persistence showing that the spring was persistently wetted April 2019–April 2022 when the data was last collected. There was a period of intermittent dryness in April 2019 and there are missing data from October 2017–March 2018.
Figure 11. Water persistence in Upper East Grammer Spring, Carlsbad Caverns National Park.

NPS

Discharge was not measured in WY2022 because there was no surface flow. In past years, discharge has ranged from 0.6–0.9 L/min (Table 12).

Wetted extent at Upper East Grammer Spring was evaluated using the method for flowing water. The total brook length was 40.6 m (133.2 ft), and width and depth averaged 47.9 cm (18.9 in) and 0.9 cm (0.4 in), respectively, which is comparable to past years (Table 13).

Water Quality

Core water quality (Table 14) and water chemistry (Table 15) data were collected at the primary sampling location at Upper East Grammer Spring. The water chemistry sample was collected with a syringe due to the very shallow wetted area. The value for dissolved oxygen was within range of prior values, while specific conductivity, water temperature, total dissolved solids, and pH were lower. Compared to prior years, alkalinity was higher, while calcium, chloride, magnesium, potassium, and sulphate were all within the ranges of past values. The WY2022 values along with the ranges of prior values are presented in the tables below.

Upper East Grammer Spring Data Tables

A very shallow pool of water that emerges from under rocks in the side of a desert drainage surrounded by dried grasses and sparse shrubs. Below the pool, the drainage has areas where the water resurfaces as it flows downhill.
Figure 12. Upper Lechuguilla Spring at Carlsbad Caverns National Park, March 2022.

NPS

WY2022 Findings at Upper Lechuguilla Spring

Upper Lechuguilla Spring (Figure 12 above) is a rheocrene spring (a spring that emerges into one or more stream channels). This spring emerges in a higher elevation, east-facing stretch of the West Lechuguilla Canyon drainage. The spring trickles out from under rocks to form a small, shallow, 0.5 x 0.5 m pool with barely perceptible flow. This flow feeds a springbrook that alternates between shallow surface flow and subsurface flow for 10–15 m. The WY2022 visit occurred on 06 March 2022, and the spring contained water.

Site Condition

In WY2022, the spring was slightly disturbed by drying (the spring contained less wetted area and was dry at the primary sampling location for the first time), fire effects (charred snags and stumps), and wildlife (digging in and around pools, extensive tracks, and scat). These disturbances have been observed in past years. No other natural or human-caused disturbances were observed at Upper Lechuguilla Spring in WY2022.

Consistent with past years, we did not observe invasive aquatic animals (e.g., crayfish or American bullfrogs [Lithobates catesbeianus]), and we did not detect any non-native plants at Upper Lechuguilla Spring in WY2022. We observed the following native obligate wetland plants: rushes (Juncaceae) and sedges (Carex sp. and other species in Cyperaceae).

Water Quantity

Temperature sensors indicated that Upper Lechuguilla Spring was wetted (contained water) for 153 of 157 days (97.5%) measured up to the WY2022 visit (Figure 13). In prior water years, the spring was wetted 41.6–54.2% of the days measured.

Area chart of water persistence indicating alternating periods of wet and dry throughout the year from April 2018 through April 2022. Generally, the spring was wet in fall and winter and dry in the summer months.
Figure 13. Water persistence in Upper Lechuguilla Spring, Carlsbad Caverns National Park.

NPS

As in past years, discharge was not measured in WY2022 at Upper Lechuguilla Spring because there was no surface flow. Wetted extent of the spring was evaluated using the method for flowing water. Comparable to measurements from previous years, the total brook length was 12.4 m (40.7 ft), and width and depth averaged 16.9 cm (6.7 in), and 0.10 cm (0.04 in), respectively (Table 16).

Water Quality

Core water quality (Table 17) and water chemistry (Table 18) data were collected at an alternate sampling location (005) in WY2022 since the primary sampling location (001) for Upper Lechuguilla Spring was dry in WY2022. The two sampling locations are < 5 m apart within the same channel. Data for both sampling locations are provided in the tables below. The values for dissolved oxygen, pH, specific conductivity, temperature, and total dissolved solids were all within ranges of prior values (2018–2020). Alkalinity and sulphate were within the range of previous measurements while magnesium was higher, calcium was more than two times higher than the highest previous value, and chloride and potassium were lower than prior values. The WY2022 values are presented in the tables below along with the ranges of prior values.

Upper Lechuguilla Spring Data Tables

A rock shelf in the side of a hill leaking water into the area below it that has some small green plants and lots of dried-up plant material. A person is crouched down beside the wet area holding a piece of scientific equipment.
Figure 14. Upper Lowe Ranch Spring at Carlsbad Caverns National Park, March 2022.

NPS

WY2022 Findings at Upper Lowe Ranch Spring

Upper Lowe Ranch Spring (Figure 14 above) is a rheochrene spring (a spring that emerges into one or more stream channels) inside a north-facing drainage east of Rattlesnake Canyon. Multiple seeps along the base of a limestone shelf form small pools and saturate the soil in the immediate area. In times of greater flow, a small channel may form before dissipating into a flat, marshy area. The WY2022 visit occurred on 05 March 2022, and the spring contained water.

Site Condition

As in past years, Upper Lowe Ranch Spring was slightly disturbed by feral animals (Barbary sheep tracks and scat in and around the spring), past fire effects (charred trees and stumps in the vicinity), and wildlife (extensive tracks and digging in and around the spring). No other natural or human-caused disturbances were observed at Upper Lowe Ranch Spring in WY2022.

Consistent with previous years, we did not observe invasive aquatic animals (e.g., crayfish or American bullfrogs [Lithobates catesbeianus]) at Upper Lowe Ranch Spring in WY2022. There were scattered patches of non-native plants, including common mullein (Verbascum thapsus), Johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense), and horehound (Marrubium vulgare). As in the past, we observed the obligate wetland plants sedge (Cyperaceae) and spikerush (Eleocharis sp.) at Upper Lowe Ranch Spring in WY2022.

Water Quantity

Temperature sensors indicated that Upper Lowe Ranch Spring was wetted (contained water) for 95 of 156 days (60.9%) measured up to the WY2022 visit (Figure 15). In prior water years, the spring was wetted 29.9–87.1% of the days measured.

Area chart of water persistence showing alternating periods of wet and dry at the spring. The spring was mostly wet during April ‘18–April ‘19, August ‘19–April ‘20, and July ‘21–April ‘22. It was mostly dry April ‘19–July ‘19, April ‘20–July ‘21.
Figure 15. Water persistence in Upper Lowe Ranch Spring, Carlsbad Caverns National Park.

NPS

Discharge was not measured in WY2022 because there was no surface flow. Discharge was estimated at 5.1 L/min in WY2020 (Table 19). Wetted extent was evaluated using the method for flowing water. The total brook length was 9.0 m (29.5 ft), and width and depth averaged 47.0 cm (18.5 in), and 0.8 cm (0.3 in), respectively—all on the lower end of the range observed in past years at Upper Lowe Ranch Spring (Table 20).

Water Quality

Core water quality (Table 21) and water chemistry (Table 22) data were collected at the primary sampling location at Upper Lowe Ranch Spring in WY2022. The value for pH was within the range recorded in prior years. Dissolved oxygen and water temperature were higher than prior years, while specific conductivity and total dissolved solids were slightly lower. Alkalinity and magnesium were lower than the ranges recorded in prior years, while calcium, chloride, potassium, and sulphate were all within the ranges of past measurements. The values are presented in the tables below along with ranges of prior values.

Upper Lowe Ranch Spring Data Tables

Report Citation

Authors: Susan Singley, Andy Hubbard, Kara Raymond

Singley, S., A. Hubbard, and K. Raymond. 2024. Climate and Water Monitoring at Carlsbad Caverns National Park: Water Year 2022. Chihuahuan Desert Network, National Park Service, Las Cruces, New Mexico.

Past Reports

Water Year 2018 Full Report
Water Year 2018 Web Summary

Tags

Last updated: March 19, 2025