Minuteman Missile National Historic Site: Protecting a Legacy of the Cold War (Teaching with Historic Places)

This lesson is part of the National Park Service’s Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) program.

The Minuteman was one of the most significant strategic weapons in U.S. history. With the turn of a key, the missile could deliver its nuclear weapon to a Soviet target in 30 minutes or less. It was a weapon for which there was virtually no defense -- for a war no one could win. For nearly three decades Ellsworth's 44th Missile Wing stood on alert. Then in 1989 the Berlin Wall fell.¹

Dispersed across the rolling high plains of western South Dakota during the Cold War were 150 Minuteman Missiles. These missiles held warheads that could have been used in a devastating counter strike against the Soviet Union in the event of a nuclear war. The industrial might and mechanistic strength held within the underground silos were in stark contrast to the above-ground fields of golden wheat and pastoral grazing lands.

For three decades -- 1963-1993 -- thousands of people passed through this seemingly peaceful area unaware of the destructive force hidden beneath the landscape. The Minuteman system transformed the prairie into a military and technological frontier. As the first solid-fuel Intercontinental Ballistic Missile ever deployed by the United States, the Minuteman enhanced America's military capabilities. It was a key component of America's Cold War policy of deterrence and by extension helped facilitate a peaceful end to the Cold War. Designated in 1999, Minuteman Missile National Historic Site protects and preserves two significant sites on this former Cold War missile field in rural South Dakota.

¹ Testimony of Tim J. Pavek, Minuteman II Deactivation Program Manager, U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Hearings before the Subcommittee on National Parks and Public Lands House Committee on Resources, 106th Congress, September 14, 1999.

About This Lesson

This lesson is based on the National Register of Historic Places registration file, "Minuteman Missile National Historic Site;" The Missile Plains: Frontline of America's Cold War, Historic Resource Study, Minuteman Missile National Historic Site; and primary sources dealing with the Cold War. The lesson is a collaborative effort produced by the Division of Interpretation at Minuteman Missile National Historic Site. It was edited by the Teaching with Historic Places staff. This lesson is one in a series that brings the important stories of historic places into classrooms across the country.

Where it fits into the curriculum

Topics: The lesson can be used in American history, social studies, and geography courses in units on modern American history, the Cold War, American foreign policy, 20th century military history, or modern world history.

Time period: Late 1950s to early 1990s

United States History Standards for Grades 5-12

Minuteman Missile National Historic Site: Protecting a Legacy of the Cold War
relates to the following National Standards for History:

Era 9 Postwar United States (1945 to early 1970s)

• Standard 1C- The student understands how postwar science augmented the nation’s economic strength, transformed daily life, and influenced the world economy.

• Standard 2A- The student understands the international origins and domestic consequences of the Cold War.Era 10 Contemporary United States (1968 to the present)

• Standard 1C- The student understands major foreign policy initiatives.

Curriculum Standards for Social Studies

National Council for the Social Studies

Minuteman Missile National Historic Site: Protecting a Legacy of the Cold War
relates to the following Social Studies Standards:

Theme II: Time, Continuity and Change

• Standard B - The student identifies and uses key concepts such as chronology, causality, change, conflict, and complexity to explain, analyze, and show connections among patterns of historical change and continuity.

• Standard C - The student identifies and describes selected historical periods and patterns of change within and across cultures, such as the rise of civilizations, the development of transportation systems, the growth and breakdown of colonial systems, and others.

• Standard D - The student identifies and uses processes important to reconstructing and reinterpreting the past, such as using a variety of sources, providing, validating, and weighing evidence for claims, checking credibility of sources, and searching for causality.

Theme III: People, Places and Environments

• Standard B - The student creates, interprets, uses, and distinguishes various representations of the earth, such as maps, globes, and photographs.

• Standard D - The student estimates distance, calculates scale, and distinguishes other geographic relationships such as population density and spacial distribution patterns.

• Standard H - The student examines, interprets, and analyzes physical and cultural patterns and their interactions, such as land uses, settlement patterns, cultural transmission of customs and ideas, and ecosystem changes.

Theme V: Individuals, Groups, and Institutions

• Standard E - The student identifies and describes examples of tensions between belief systems and government policies and laws.

Theme VI: Power, Authority, and Governance

• Standard C - The student analyzes and explains ideas and governmental mechanisms to meet wants and needs of citizens, regulate territory, manage conflict, and establish order and security.

• Standard F - The student explains conditions, actions, and motivations that contribute to conflict and cooperation with and among nations.

• Standard G - The student describes and analyzes the role of technology in communications, transportation, information-processing, weapons development, or other areas as it contributes to or helps resolve conflicts.

• Standard I - The student gives examples and explains how governments attempt to achieve their stated ideals at home and abroad.

Theme VII: Production, Distribution, and Consumption

• Standard I - The student uses economic concepts to help explain historical and current developments and issues in local, national, or global contexts.

Theme VIII: Science, Technology, and Society

• Standard A - The student examines and describes the influence of culture on scientific and technological choices and advancement, such as in transportation, medicine, and warfare.

Theme IX: Global Connections

• Standard B - The student analyze examples of conflict, cooperation, and interdependence among groups, societies, and nations

• Standard C - The student describes and analyzes the effects of changing technologies on the global community.

Objectives for students

1) Explain the Cold War and how it differed from "hot" wars (or armed conflict).
2) Compare and contrast the benefits of solid and liquid fuel ballistic missile systems.
3) Outline how the Cold War influenced the development and deployment of the Minuteman Missile weapons system.
4) Investigate the role of Missileers during the Cold War.
5) Conduct oral histories to learn about how the Cold War impacted their community

Materials for students

The materials listed below either can be used directly on the computer or can be printed out, photocopied, and distributed to students. The maps and images appear twice: in a smaller, low-resolution version with associated questions and alone in a larger version.
1) two maps showing missile fields in the United States and missile sites in South Dakota;
2) three readings on the Cold War, Minuteman Missiles, and life as a missileer;
3) six photos of various Cold War subjects and Minuteman Missile facilities.

Visiting the site

The Minuteman Missile National Historic Site consists of two detached facilities: Launch Control Facility, Delta-01 and Launch Facility, Delta-09. Tours are offered daily throughout the year and begin at the park's Project Office located off Interstate 90 exit 131. For more information write the superintendent at: Minuteman Missile National Historic Site, 21280 SD Hwy. 240, Philip, SD 57567 or call: 605-433-5552, or visit the park's website.

Getting Started

Inquiry Question

What might this be?
Where do you think it might be located?

Setting the Stage

Following World War II relations between the United States and Soviet Union¹ spiraled downward. Each nation had emerged victorious from the war, but their ideological and economic systems were extremely different. The United States was based on a system of democracy and free enterprise. The Soviet Union employed a communist system ruled by a single political party.

At the end of the war, the United States had led the world in development of new military weapons such as the atomic and hydrogen bombs. American technological expertise had kept it ahead during an escalating military competition with the Soviet Union. In the fall of 1957 though, the United States was jolted into stark reality. On October 4, 1957 the nation learned that the Soviets had gained a technological advantage. A Soviet satellite known as Sputnik had been the first of its kind ever launched into space. The physical presence of Sputnik seemed relatively innocent. After all, it was nothing more than an aluminum sphere--about the size of a beach ball--that had two radio transmitters that emitted a loud beeping noise. Yet American politicians, defense analysts and even ordinary citizens came to a seemingly logical conclusion: if the Soviets could use a rocket to launch Sputnik into space then it was just a matter of time before they used the same rocket technology to strike the heartland of America with a nuclear warhead. Suddenly every community in the United States was vulnerable.

A sort of psychological hysteria gripped the American mindset. Top scientists and military planners believed America had fallen far behind the Soviets in science and technology. Such scientific luminaries as Edward Teller, the physicist who had helped develop the hydrogen bomb, said that the United States had "lost a battle more important and greater than Pearl Harbor."² Government reports called for a massive increase in the funding of the development of a U.S. missile force. President Dwight Eisenhower responded by raising financial support for intercontinental ballistic missile development to record levels. Over the next few years the U.S. was able to create and deploy a series of groundbreaking missile systems across the heartland of the United States. The most powerful and advanced of these, known as "Minuteman," would give the U.S. a decided military advantage over the Soviets for years to come as the first solid-fuel missile system deployed. It would take the Soviet Union another 11 years to develop its equal.

¹ The Soviet Union was created and expanded as a union of Soviet republics formed within the territory of the Russian Empire. Its geographic boundaries have varied over time.
² Isaacs, Jeremy and Downing, Taylor. The Cold War: An Illustrated History 1945-1991 (Little, Brown and Company, 1998) p. 155.

Locating the Site

Map 1: Minuteman Missile fields in the United States.

(Library of Congress)

The shaded areas on Map 1 show the location of the missile silos in the fields.
Minuteman Missiles were deployed across the Central and Northern Great Plains region beginning in 1961. Minuteman Missiles were America's first solid-fuel Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs). A ballistic missile is one that is launched by a rocket motor which then shuts off when all of the fuel is burned. The rest of the missile's flight is determined by the forces of gravity. These missiles were designed for delivery of nuclear weapons to a target thousands of miles away. By 1965 there were 1,000 Minuteman ICBMs located in six different missile fields. Each missile field covered a vast tract of land up to 15,000 square miles in size in order to keep the individual silos well-dispersed. The military chose the Great Plains area to deploy these missiles for several reasons. The first Minuteman Missiles were deployed in the northern part of the country because their range was limited to 4,300 miles. The missile had to be launched over the North Pole in order to strike targets in the central Soviet Union. Also, the Great Plains was the furthest area from both the Atlantic and Pacific coastlines. If missiles had been sited in states adjacent to the ocean, they could have been destroyed by Soviet submarine launched ballistic missiles in a matter of minutes or even seconds. Other stated reasons for missile field locations included closeness to existing Air Force bases for logistical support, cost effectiveness, and low population density in the Great Plains possibly limiting casualties in a nuclear war.

Questions for Map 1
1. Locate the six Air Force bases (AFB) with missile fields and list them by state. Why were the missile fields situated near these bases?
2. Why were missile fields located in the middle of the United States? Why were they not located closer to the Atlantic or Pacific coasts of the United States?
3. Based on the reasons listed above did the Great Plains seem like the best place to deploy missiles? Why or why not? Can you suggest a better area in the United States to locate them? If so, what is your reasoning?

Locating the Site

Map 2: 44th Missile Wing, Ellsworth Air Force Base.

(Library of Congress)

The 44th Missile Wing at Ellsworth Air Force Base in western South Dakota consisted of 150 Launch Facilities (LF's)--or silos, which are underground shelters for missiles--and 15 Launch Control Facility (LCF) support structures (one for every 10 silos). The LCF had a facility manager, cook, and several security police who were stationed on the topside to provide support for two missileers stationed in a Launch Control Center (LCC) capsule below the surface, where military personnel monitored the systems and could send specific launch commands to the remote silos. Each silo held one Minuteman Missile. The silos were unmanned, independent, and dispersed across the high plains. The Air Force required that no silo be within three and a half miles of another. This was done so an explosion at the one facility would not destroy another facility. An underground network of communication cables interconnected the silos and support structures.

A "flight" was made up of 10 missiles. For example, support structure Delta-01 was in command of silos Delta-02 through Delta-11. Each flight of 10 missiles was part of a squadron of 50 missiles. There were three squadrons of 50 missiles in western South Dakota making up the entire 44th missile wing of 150 missiles. The missile field in South Dakota covered a vast region of approximately 13,500 square miles (an area larger than the state of Maryland).

Questions for Map 2
1. Locate Ellsworth Air Force Base. What is the distance to the furthest Launch Control Facility from the base? If you drove 60 miles an hour how long would it take to get from the base to this LCF?
2. Locate the Delta missile flight (hint: the map shows each flight by the first letter in its name)? Describe its location within the missile field?
3. Based on the information given above why do think it was better to have the sites spaced apart? Can you think of a different way to organize the missile field?
4. Compare Maps 1 and 2. Does Map 2 give you a better idea of the complex organization of these facilities? Why or why not?

Determining the Facts

Reading 1: The Cold War Escalates

For four decades after the end of World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union became locked in what would become known as the Cold War. The Cold War would be quite different from past wars. Most wars had been "hot" wars where there had been direct armed conflict between opponents. However, the Cold War was a struggle between the Americans and the Soviets to determine which of their economic and ideological systems would govern world affairs. The United States system was based on democratic government (where citizens control government) and an economic system of "free enterprise" (or privately owned businesses). The Soviet Union was a "communist" state, where a single authoritarian party owned all property within the nation and controlled all production. Goods and services were then distributed to the people by the state. The democratic and communist systems were directly opposed to one another. Instead of engaging in military conflict, the two powers became engaged in political, economic, and cultural rivalry, and most alarmingly, competition to develop the greatest military power.

Containing the spread of communism in both Western Europe and Asia was the main focus of American foreign policy efforts. American political and military leaders became increasingly convinced that only a show of force would keep communist aggression from controlling the world. "Battlegrounds" had included the divided city of Berlin, which had been split between East and West Germany after World War II, and the Korean peninsula. By the mid 1950s many Americans wondered if it was just a matter of time before the Cold War would escalate into armed conflict with the Soviets. Because the United States had enjoyed a lead in developing scientific and military technologies the nation still felt confident it would eventually emerge victorious in this tense conflict. That illusion was shattered with the Soviet launch of the satellite Sputnik on October 4, 1957 in advance of the U.S. plan to launch a satellite by spring of 1958. A communist system once defined by economic and technological backwardness had been able to develop technologies that could not only threaten America's influence around the world, but also its own heartland. American fears were compounded by statements from the Soviet's chief political leader, Premier Nikita Khrushchev that the communists would soon be mass producing missiles. Americans began to ask the inevitable question: How could the United States regain their advantage?

At this point, Americans put their faith in President Dwight Eisenhower. He successfully led our military in Europe during World War II and oversaw a period of great prosperity during his first five years in office. If anyone could quiet the growing crisis of confidence in the American system, it would be the leader fondly nicknamed, "Ike." Eisenhower had long warned the nation about the consequences of a vast military build-up. Sure it was important for national security, but 40% of the national budget already went for military expenditures. Competing with the Soviets by further increasing the military budget had more than just financial costs. Eisenhower believed the economy could become so tied to military spending that it could threaten America's democratic values. Then the United States would be no different than the Soviet Union. Eisenhower began to speed up the development of ballistic missiles, both because of the threat they posed to the Soviet Union, and also because they were considered more cost effective than other forms of military buildup.

In late 1957, Eisenhower felt immense pressure. Americans growing displeasure after Sputnik increased after the failed launch of America's first satellite, Vanguard TV3. Americans watched the nationally televised event with horror on December 6, 1957 as the rocket rose a mere four feet off the pad, fell back to the ground, and exploded in flames. The nation was embarrassed. On January 9, 1958, Eisenhower gave a speech before Congress and the nation in an attempt to quiet the nation's concern. He outlined a plan for U.S. national defense that would eventually exceed Soviet efforts.

Now as to the period ahead: Every part of our military establishment must and will be equipped to do its defensive job with the most modern weapons and methods. But it is particularly important to our planning that we make a candid estimate of the effect of long-range ballistic missiles on the present deterrent power I have described.At this moment, the consensus of opinion is that we are probably somewhat behind the Soviets in some areas of long-range ballistic missile development. But it is my conviction, based on close study of all relevant intelligence, that if we make the necessary effort, we will have the missiles, in the needed quantity and in time, to sustain and strengthen the deterrent power of our increasingly efficient bombers. One encouraging fact evidencing this ability is the rate of progress we have achieved since we began to concentrate on these missiles.

The intermediate ballistic missiles, Thor and Jupiter, have already been ordered into production. The parallel progress in the intercontinental ballistic missile effort will be advanced by our plans for acceleration. The development of the submarine-based Polaris missile system has progressed so well that its future procurement schedules are being moved forward markedly.
When it is remembered that our country has concentrated on the development of ballistic missiles for only about a third as long as the Soviets, these achievements show a rate of progress that speaks for itself.¹

Following Eisenhower's address, Congress passed legislation that began a series of programs to boost American technology. One hope was that an emphasis on educational incentives and programs would lead to an increased number of engineers. Financial support for scientific research tripled over the next year. Development of the Polaris submarine based missile program became a priority for naval operations. Finally, Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) Programs experienced budget increases. In just a few years the United States would be ready to deploy the first solid-fuel ICBM, the Minuteman. This missile would be one of the greatest technological breakthroughs in American history.

Questions for Reading 1
1. Define the Cold War. How was it different from other "hot" wars or armed conflicts?
2. Why did the launch of Sputnik cause Americans to fear for their own security?
3. Why was President Eisenhower worried about increasing military expenditures?
4. What actions and programs did President Eisenhower mention in his State of the Union Address that the United States was taking to regain their military advantage over the Soviets?

Reading 1 was compiled from The Missile Plains: Frontline of America's Cold War, Historic Resource Study, Minuteman Missile National Historic Site, South Dakota (Omaha: Mead & Hunt Inc., 2003); Downing, Taylor and Issacs, Jeremy, The Cold War: An Illustrated History 1945-1991 (Little, Brown and Company: Boston, 1998).
¹ State of the Union Address, President Dwight D. Eisenhower, U.S. Congress, January 9, 1958.

Determining the Facts

Reading 2: Development of Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles and Deployment of the Minuteman

To understand why the Minuteman Missile was such an astounding innovation it is vital to first learn about the missile systems which preceded it. At first the Soviets were able to outperform the United States due to the massive amount of time, energy, and money they put into their program. By 1957 Soviet efforts had resulted in the world's first intercontinental ballistic missile, the R-7 Semyorka. The R-7 missile relied on liquid fuel and four strap-on booster rockets to propel the vehicle after its initial launch. Though the R-7 was considered a great innovation it was burdened by outrageous costs and other inefficiencies. For instance, large launch sites had to be constructed in extremely remote areas. These sites cost up to five percent of the Soviet defense budget. The R-7 also took 20 hours of preparation on the launch pad before it could be launched. American bombers in Alaska, Asia, or Europe would have more than enough time to destroy the rocket while it sat on the launch pad. Nonetheless, it seemed to Americans that the Soviets had once again taken the technological lead.
Unknown by many Americans, a behind-the-scenes effort was underway to develop an even better missile system for the U.S. Air Force leadership enacted a special branch known as the Air Research and Development Command (ARDC) to oversee the new missile program. They contracted with a corporation known as Convair to develop a ballistic missile. This weapon--later known as the Atlas--was to carry a nuclear warhead within 300 yards of a target 5,000 miles away. President Eisenhower accelerated the program after he had taken office in 1953. Experts believed that the program would take around six years to produce a workable missile.

The main problem with liquid fuel systems was the danger caused by the highly flammable fuel. Because this fuel was not inserted until just before a launch, it had to be stored safely until that very moment. The slightest spark could cause an explosion which might endanger the lives of on-site crews and destroy the entire launch facility. Another issue was the heavy weight of the fuel, which caused problems in getting the rocket off the ground. The first Atlas was gigantic, weighing 267,000 pounds. This weight was mainly due to the heavy fuel and massive engines which gave the rocket enough thrust to propel it into flight. By 1958, an Atlas had been successfully tested and by the next year several were placed in the first active missile fields. Yet the Air Force was not totally satisfied with the Atlas system. The liquid fuel caused several accidents. In addition, the time taken to pump the fuel into the rocket caused at least a 15 minute delay before lift off. The Soviets were developing submarine launched ballistic missiles which when fired from just off the Atlantic or Pacific coasts could destroy Atlas missiles before they were ready for launch. Fortunately the Air Force had been working on a new top secret missile program, which would solve many of these problems. It involved a concept known as solid fuel and an innovative weapon which came to be known as the Minuteman.

During the mid-1950s scientists were already developing solid-fuel missiles to replace the dangerous liquid-fueled Atlas, and its follow-up missile system, the Titan. Solid fuel had a number of advantages, including safety, cost effectiveness, and reliability. In 1958 the Air Force approved a design for a solid-fueled missile. This missile was the brainchild of Lt. Col. Edward Hall, who compiled the knowledge from existing studies and technologies to develop a new and improved design. With solid-fuel technology a missile would be able to lie dormant for long periods of time with limited maintenance and upkeep. The cost of production would be about one-fifth the cost of an Atlas. Most importantly, it had the ability to be remotely controlled. Within minutes of receiving a launch command it could be airborne to strike targets in the central Soviet Union. Hall named it the "Minuteman" because of this quick strike ability. As an added bonus the Soviets were far behind in developing solid-fuel rockets.

Both American politicians and military planners wanted the Minuteman operational and in the field as soon as possible because of a perceived "missile gap" with the Soviets. Less than three weeks after the launch of Sputnik in late 1957, a panel had told the director of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) that the Soviets would be mass producing missiles by decade's end. Conversely, the United States would be hard pressed to deploy a workable system with a few missiles. In the presidential election of 1960, Democratic candidate John F. Kennedy won the election against Richard Nixon in part because of the perceived "missile gap" and its devastating consequences. Though the "missile gap" would eventually be proven false, public perception and political pressure resulted in accelerating the schedule for the Minuteman project. The Minuteman had been set for operational use by 1963, but a monumental effort by the Air Force and its contracting partners resulted in the first missile field activated on October 24th, 1962, at Malmstrom Air Force Base in Montana.

The first Minuteman missiles went on high alert--awaiting a possible warfare situation--at the height of the Cuban Missile Crisis, a crisis brought about by the Soviet attempt to deploy missiles in Cuba. Cuba had been an ally of the United States for decades, but in the late 1950s a revolution led to a communist government taking control of the country. Americans could feel communism literally knocking at the nation's back door. Cuba was less then 100 miles from the southern mainland of the United States. This could have resulted in strikes against the southern United States with only perhaps a minute of warning. President Kennedy issued orders for a naval quarantine of Cuba, whereby Soviet ships would not be allowed to pass through with vital military supplies. The quarantine was really a blockade that could have been interpreted by the Soviets as a declaration of war. Fortunately for both sides, cooler heads prevailed. The Soviets decided not to challenge such a show of force and a negotiated settlement was reached. The Soviets agreed to remove all of their missile installations in Cuba. For their part, the United States also agreed to dismantle missiles they had installed on the Soviet border in Turkey. The world had barely avoided a nuclear war.

The United States continued to fear for its security, but realized that the Minuteman weapons system had been a valuable asset during the crisis. President Kennedy referred to it as his "Ace in the Hole." Over the next two years, hundreds of Minuteman Missile silos and support structures would be constructed across the Great Plains landscape, including the state of South Dakota. This missile defense system was not necessarily meant for first-strike capability, but rather to uphold the basic Cold War strategy of "mutually assured destruction." In other words, a nuclear war could not be won. If a war was started (for example, a missile was launched to strike the U.S.) by the Soviet Union, we had the capability to strike back quickly causing both sides total destruction.

Questions for Reading 2
1. What were some of the drawbacks of liquid fuel missile systems? What were the benefits of solid fuel systems? Compare and contrast the two.
2. Do think Atlas missiles could have been deployed in large numbers? Why or why not?
3. What was the "missile gap?" Why did it play such a large role in the accelerated development and deployment of the Minuteman?
4. What impact do you think the Cuban Missile Crisis had upon the Minuteman program?
5. Why were Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles so important to national defense?
6. How did the missile defense system uphold the Cold War strategy of "mutually assured destruction?" Does this seem like an effective defense system? Why or why not?

Reading 2 was compiled from Kort, Michael, The Columbia Guide to the Cold War. The Columbia Guides to American History and Cultures Series (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998); Special Resource Study for Minuteman Missile Sites: Management Alternatives and Environmental Assessment, Washington, D.C.: Department of the Interior, Department of Defense and the U.S. Air Force Legacy Resource Management Program (Denver: National Park Service, 1995); The Missile Plains: Frontline of America's Cold War, Historic Resource Study, Minuteman Missile National Historic Site, South Dakota (Omaha: Mead & Hunt Inc., 2003).

Determining the Facts

Reading 3: Silent Soldiers: Missileer Duty

By the fall of 1963 there were 150 Minuteman Missile Launch Facilities (silos) dispersed across western South Dakota. For every 10 silos there was a support structure known as a Launch Control Facility (LCF). This building had a facility manager, cook and several security police who were stationed on the topside to provide support for two missileers stationed in a Launch Control Center (LCC) capsule 31 feet below the surface. These topside personnel worked for three straight days followed by another three days off. The missileers in the underground Launch Control Center were on duty for 24-hour shifts at a time. About 80 miles east of Rapid City, South Dakota and Ellsworth Air Force Base was Launch Control Facility Delta-01. This LCF was operational for nearly 30 years. The Air Force personnel on duty here experienced some of the tensest moments during the Cold War. Though they were not on the front lines of international incidents, they were on the frontlines of America's Cold War defenses. These were the forgotten soldiers who performed these shifts year after year.

Of all the duties performed by Air Force personnel at Delta-01 there was none more important than that of the missile combat crew which occupied the LCC. The crew consisted of a commander and deputy who were both military officers. The capsule in which they were stationed, buried 31 feet below the surface, was both their living and work area for an entire 24-hour shift. The missileers underwent intense training for several months before they were allowed to go on duty in an active missile field. Not only were they expected to learn a mind boggling amount of technical data about the Minuteman system, but they also had to be psychologically stable. Their jobs could possibly be one of the most stressful in the Air Force. Once they were properly trained and on duty they were expected to be no less then perfect at their jobs.

A typical day for a launch crew stationed at Delta-01 would start early in the morning when they arrived at Ellsworth. They would first undergo a security briefing about the international situation around the world. It was during this briefing that they would be informed if there was any reason that the base might be placed on higher alert status. They would then drive an official Air Force vehicle out to the LCF. Usually the drive to Delta-01 would take about an hour and a half. Once they arrived at the security fence surrounding the LCF they would radio in their dispatch information to the Flight Security Controller who monitored the grounds from the Security Control Center. This information was checked for accuracy then the gate would be opened by remote control. The missileers would pull up to a door adjacent to the Security Control Center to have their identification checked. Once they had been properly identified they were allowed into the building. The missileers would then call down to the missile crew already on duty in the underground capsule to authenticate secret codes. They must have the correct codes or it would mean a trip all the way back to base for another set of codes.

From the Security Control Center they would then be allowed entry into the elevator leading down to the capsule. When they arrived underground the deputy crew member already in the capsule would open the eight ton blast door to allow them in. This door was to be kept shut at all times unless someone had the proper authentication codes to enter the capsule. When passing by the door they would see painted on the wall: "No Lone Zone, Two Man Concept Mandatory." This meant that no one could ever be in the capsule alone. All areas of extremely high security in the missile field adhered to the two man concept. Being in such an area alone would result in the loss of one's job.

The off-going missile crew always gave the new crew a short 10 minute briefing which consisted of among other things the handing over of two .38 revolvers for use if any intruders entered the capsule. The crew going off duty would then exit the capsule and the new crew's shift would officially begin. Former missileer Andy Knight recalled years later what a typical work shift was like:

Ninety percent or ninety-five percent of the time, usually we'd just sit there. We would read magazines. Study for the professional military programs, or some people would work on their master's degree. It was a great time, at that time. And at that time they didn't allow any kind of t.v. sets or anything like that down there. It was just the crew. And, as I said before, there was one cot there and one crew member could go to sleep. And usually the person who had the graveyard shift--the midnight to six o'clock in the morning shift--usually that person would crawl into the cot right after dinner. Usually we'd have dinner right around five o'clock, so that person'd get in the cot and go to sleep from five, and then from five until about midnight. And then the deputy, at midnight then we'd swap off. And, you'd get into, it was like a hot bunk and you'd sleep until about six o'clock in the morning. That was generally what took our tour.¹

Even though many shifts were spent passing time, the missileers knew from their training that their jobs were of the utmost importance. As Knight recalled:

it was probably the most, most responsibility that I've ever had in my life. And, we were tested constantly. And, the tests that we were, whether it was, whether it was multiple choice or written exams. Or whether it was actual training scenarios in the simulator, we always had on the written exams one hundred percent was passing, if you missed one question, you failed, and you had to start all over again. So there was no room for error.²

During their shift the missileers received coded messages from Strategic Air Command (SAC) in Nebraska. Though the crew may have been stationed at Ellsworth they took their orders from SAC. The most important and feared command they could ever receive was known as an Emergency War Order (EWO). This order would mean the missiles were to be launched. The following description is a detailed account of executing such an order:

In the Delta One capsule, an alarm would have alerted the two-person missile crew of those directives. Immediately, over the speaker system, the launch control officers would hear a coded message, giving the command to launch. After verifying the message's authenticity, the launch officers would unlock a small, red, "Emergency War Order" safe above the deputy commander's control panel. Within the box were two launch keys. Each officer would take one key, and insert it into his or her control console. The missileers would then strap themselves into their console chairs and begin the final countdown.At the end of the countdown sequence, the officers would turn their launch keys. The Air Force employed several fail-safes to prevent an unauthorized missile launch. For example, both officers had to turn their launch keys in unison. Because the launch switches were 12 feet apart, it was impossible for one person to turn both keys at once. The final command to launch also required another "vote" (two missileers performing the same procedure at another Launch Control Center in the missile field) from outside of Delta One.

When the second vote came in, the LAUNCH IN PROCESS display would illuminate. Explosive gas generators would then push open the 90-ton launch doors covering the ten Delta Flight missile silos, and the nuclear-tipped Minutemen would begin streaking toward their targets half a world away. As each missile blasted from its silo, its upper umbilical cable would sever, triggering the MISSILE AWAY light on the commander's control panel.

In less than five minutes, the Delta One missileers would have completed their mission. The Minuteman missiles would take another half hour to reach their targets.³

Though missileers never executed an actual launch there was always the distinct possibility that such a moment could come. As the Emergency War Order proceedings illustrate, the missileers had one of the toughest jobs in the Air Force. For nearly 30 years at Delta-01 they worked shifts awaiting orders which fortunately never arrived. These silent soldiers went relatively unnoticed by the general public or even their own fellow Air Force personnel. They protected America from armed aggressors thousands of miles from home and the end result was a valuable contribution to victory in the Cold War.

In 1991, less then two years after the Berlin Wall fell, the Soviet Union began to crumble. The Soviet economy had been faltering for years. The cost of keeping up with advanced American military weapons systems such as the Minuteman had led the Soviet economy to the brink of bankruptcy. The nation's infrastructure began to fall apart. For decades, the Soviets had barely been able to take care of its military needs, but this came at the expense of their citizen's standard of living. By the beginning of the 1990s the Soviet people began to grow increasingly restless as they saw democracy and free enterprise economics take hold in the nations of Eastern Europe that had once professed their loyalty to communism. In a remarkable series of events which included street protests, rallies, and the attempted overthrow of leader Mikhail Gorbachev, the Soviet Union finally dissolved in December of 1991. The Cold War ended with world civilization intact. The arms race subsided and many of the Minuteman Missile facilities were slated for deactivation, including the Minuteman Missiles in South Dakota. These missiles, which had acted as silent sentinels guarding the United States for nearly three decades, had completed their mission.

Questions for Reading 3
1. Why would the missile combat crew have the most stressful job at Delta-01?
2. What is the primary mission of a missileer's duty?
3. Why do think there were so many security procedures for missileers? Do you think other jobs in the Air Force require secret codes and high security? If so, what might those jobs be?
4. What role do you think missileers played in both protecting the citizens of the United States from nuclear attack and helping the nation eventually win the Cold War?
5. Why do you think missileers did not receive the glory and accolades that other military personnel have?

Reading 3 was compiled from Knight, Andy, Interview by Dr. Steven Bucklin. Typed transcript. May 19, 1999; Manson, Craig, Interview by Sue Lamie. Typed transcript. June 27, 2002; Special Resource Study for Minuteman Missile Sites: Management Alternatives and Environmental Assessment. Washington, D.C.: Department of the Interior, Department of Defense and the U.S. Air Force Legacy Resource Management Program (Denver: National Park Service, 1995); The Missile Plains: Frontline of America's Cold War, Historic Resource Study, Minuteman Missile National Historic Site, South Dakota (Omaha: Mead & Hunt Inc., 2003).

¹ Knight, Andy, Interview by Dr. Steven Bucklin. Typed transcript. May 19, 1999, 17-18.
² Knight, 5.
³ Special Resource Study for Minuteman Missile Sites: Management Alternatives and Environmental Assessment, 51.

Visual Evidence

Photo 1: Sputnik, 1957.

(NASA)

It was this seemingly odd looking sphere which would eventually lead the United States to accelerate their ballistic rocket program. Sputnik meant "fellow traveler." It was the first of many Soviet launched satellites. More importantly this beach ball sized object showed the world that the Soviet's reigned supreme in their missile technologies. It was not really the Sputnik satellite which worried the United States instead it was the R-7 launch vehicle which propelled it into space. How long would it would be until the R-7 brought a nuclear bomb to the American mainland? After Sputnik it seemed just a matter of time.

Questions for Photo 1
1. Describe the size, shape and other notable physical details of Sputnik? Does it look like a technological wonder?
2. How do you think this photo was taken? Does it look real? Why or why not?
3. Do think Americans had reason to be scared of Sputnik? Would its successful launch have scared you?

Visual Evidence

Photo 2: President Kennedy with Strategic Air Commander General Thomas S. Power at Vandenberg Air Force Base, 1962.

(U.S. Air Force, History Division)

Vandenberg Air Force Base in California was the main testing/training base for Minuteman Missiles and their operations. President John F. Kennedy visited the base during the early 1960s to show his support for the Minuteman program. It was during Kennedy's term as president that the Minuteman became the United States leading nuclear missile force. He referred to it as his "Ace in the Hole."

Questions for Photo 2
1. Why do you think presidential support was vital to the Minuteman program?
2. What do think President Kennedy meant by his quote that the Minuteman was his "Ace in the Hole?"

Visual Evidence

Photo 3: Launch Control Center under construction, 1963.

(Library of Congress)

Photo 4: Inside Launch Control Center, 1991.

(Library of Congress)


Construction crews came to western South Dakota to take part in an unprecedented effort to build the facilities needed to support 150 Minuteman Missiles. One of the most important structures was this egg shaped capsule, which was 29' in diameter and 54' in length. Inside of this capsule was a box known as the Launch Control Center (LCC), which was 11' wide and 54' long. It was from within this structure that missileers would be in direct control of 10 Minuteman Missiles. They could launch these missiles in the event of a Soviet pre-emptive nuclear strike. The capsule at Delta-01 was buried 31 feet below the surface and surrounded by reinforced concrete. The LCC needed this protection to survive a nearby nuclear blast. They performed such diverse technical duties as monitoring maintenance of silos or silo security alarms, running endless tests, and decoding messages from headquarters.


Questions for Photos 3 & 4
1. How would you describe Photo 3? Does the capsule "fit" into its surroundings, in other words would you suspect that it was there once it was entirely below the surface?
2. Why was the capsule buried below the surface? Would you feel safe inside of the capsule? Why or why not?
3. How would you describe Photo 4? Does it look like a difficult place to work? Describe what a typical day might be like for a Missileer. If needed, refer to Reading 3.
4. What would you do in your spare time if you worked in the Launch Control Center? Do you think the 24-hour shift would go by quickly or slowly? Why?

Visual Evidence

Photo 5: Launch Control Facility Delta-01.

(National Park Service)

The Delta-01 Launch Control Facility was one of 15 constructed in the missile field of western South Dakota. The Delta-01 structure was neither hidden nor advertised. Instead it was of basic ranch design, made to look the same as many structures in this region of South Dakota. However, this installation was surrounded by a chain link fence, an array of bizarre antennas, and it had a helicopter landing pad.

Questions for Photo 5
1. What kind of building does this look like to you? Would you think that it controlled nuclear missiles?
2. What was the mission of the staff who served in Delta-01? If needed, refer to Reading 3.
3. Why do think the Launch Control Center was beneath the surface instead topside beside the rest of the Launch Control Facility?
4. Based on what you have learned in the readings and observed in the photos, would you rather work in the above ground facility of the LCC bunker below ground? How would your jobs differ in each place?

Visual Evidence

Photo 6: Launch Facility Delta-09 today.

(National Park Service)

Dispersed across the high plains of South Dakota were 150 silos just like the Launch Facility at Delta-09. Delta-09 connected to its Launch Control Facility at Delta-01 by underground communications cables. Most of the time Delta-09 was unmanned. Periodically, maintenance crews would perform upkeep or take care of any malfunctioning systems. At other times security police would have to secure the site if any outer or inner zone alarms sounded. Below the circular 90 ton concrete cap was a Minuteman II missile. This missile was housed in a silo which was temperature and humidity controlled. The Minuteman carried a 1.2 megaton warhead that had 120 times the explosive capacity of the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima during World War II.

In Photo 6, visitors to the Launch Facility look down into the silo through a viewing enclosure where the 90 ton concrete cap had been at a Minuteman II Missile on display. The Delta-09 Launch Facility (shown above) and the Delta-01 Launch Control Facility (shown in Photo 5) are part of Minuteman Missile National Historic Site, a unit of the National Park Service established in 1999 by the United States Congress. The park's resources are the only ones specifically designated to illustrate the history of the Cold War, the nuclear arms race, and development of ICBMs.

Questions for Photo 6
1. Does the launch facility look dangerous? Do any of the above ground structures indicate a nuclear missile is beneath the ground?
2. What would you think Delta-09 was if you did not know that it was a Launch Facility?
3. Why do you think that the Launch Control Facility and Launch Facility seen in Photos 5 and 6 became a unit of the National Park Service? Had you heard about the Cold War prior to this lesson? Do you think it is important to learn about the nuclear arms race and development of ICBMs during this time period? Why or why not?

Putting It All Together

In this lesson, students learn how the escalation of the Cold War led to the development of Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles and the deployment of the Minuteman Missile system. The following activities will help students apply what they have learned.

Activity 1: The Minuteman: Part of our future or a relic of the past?
Although the Minuteman Missile force has been significantly reduced since the Cold War, it is still part of our national defense system today. The current Minuteman force consists of 500 Minuteman III's located at F.E. Warren Air Force Base, Wyoming, Malmstrom Air Force Base, Montana, and Minot Air Force Base, North Dakota. Divide students into teams having each team research one of the following topics:

1. The Minuteman's role in the United States national defense system today.
2. Whether or not deterrence is still an effective means in avoiding armed conflict.
3. Current U.S. military conflicts.

Have each team share their findings in class. Hold a class discussion comparing and contrasting how today's conflicts differ from the Cold War.

Activity 2: Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles: America's Cold War Deterrent
Divide students into four groups and assign each group one of America's ground-based missile forces during the Cold War: the Atlas, Titan, Minuteman, and Peacekeeper. Have the students research each missile's specifications such as height, weight, range, and warhead size plus the pros and cons of each specific one. In addition, have each group make a large design drawing of their missile. Students should present this information to the class. Then ask the students to determine which of these missiles is/was the best for United States defensive capabilities.

Activity 3: Nuclear and Cold War: A Shadow over the World
Have students conduct oral histories with their parents or community members who remember the Cold War. Some suggested questions might be:
A. What did they think would happen during the Cuban Missile Crisis?
B. Were there other times during the Cold War that they worried about a nuclear war?
C. Were they aware of the missile defense system in place?
D. How did they prepare for a possible nuclear war?
E. Did they believe a nuclear war was survivable?
F. What was their most memorable personal experience of the Cold War era?
After the interviews are completed have students discuss their interviews in class. Students should consider donating the oral histories to a local library or historical society to preserve these stories about the Cold War for future generations.

Minuteman Missile National Historic Site: Protecting a Legacy of the Cold War--

Supplementary Resources

By studying Minuteman Missile National Historic Site: Protecting a Legacy of the Cold War students learn about the Cold War and the vital part played by the weapons system during the conflict. The following is a list of websites where students will find excellent research materials and information related to the Cold War and Minuteman Missiles:

Minuteman Missile National Historic Site
Minuteman Missile National Historic Site is a unit of the National Park Service. The park's website has several historic studies online that place the Minuteman weapons system in its proper historic context.

USSTRATCOM (formerly Strategic Air Command)
Visit the USSTRATCOM website for more information on this command in charge of our defensive missile system. On June 1, 1992, with the Berlin Wall down and the Soviet Union nonexistent, the Air Force stood down Strategic Air Command, where it took its place in the history books of the Cold War. That same day, President George H. Bush established a new unified command, U.S. Strategic Command, but still in charge of Minuteman. Its mission of deterrence is similar, but its structure and role reflects the changing international political landscape.

The Cold War Museum
An online museum with a detailed timeline and explanation of major events that occurred during the Cold War. The website also includes fascinating historical accounts of military and espionage activities.

Cold War Files
An online classroom filled with resources for high schools students, developed by the Cold War International History project.

Air Force Link
Air Force Link is the official World Wide Web site of the United States Air Force. Visit this site for more information on the Minuteman's role in today's national defense system.

Library of Congress: Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS)/ Historic American Engineering Record (HAER) Collection
Search the HABS/HAER collection for detailed drawings, pictures, and documentation from their survey of various Minuteman Missile facilities. HABS/HAER is a division of the National Park Service.