A United Force: Eisenhower and AAF Strategy for Operation Overlord

General Eisenhower at SHAEF Headquarters, 1944

Eisenhower Presidential Library

In his time as the Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force (AEF), General Dwight D. Eisenhower was known for his man management. His ability to work with multiple commanders towards a unified goal defined his leadership style. One such example is his work in managing General George S. Patton and British Field Marshall Bernard Montgomery during the Allies’ various campaigns through Europe. However, Ike’s ability to manage multiple leaders does not pertain exclusively to ground commanders.

In the lead-up to Operation Overlord, the start of the Allied liberation of Europe, Eisenhower, and other top Allied commanders knew that the Normandy landings could only be accomplished with air superiority. Allied success in Normandy relied on control of the skies to protect landing troops from attacks by the Luftwaffe. For Ike– as the AEF’s Supreme Commander, this meant working with a new cast of leaders to accomplish this goal.

Five major Air Forces served under Eisenhower’s command in Europe. The American Eighth, Fifteenth, and Ninth Air Forces in addition to the Anglo-Canadian Second Air Force and the British Royal Air Force’s Bomber Command. These organizations all operated from different bases around Europe, operating different aircraft, and flying different missions to different
targets. Still, all worked towards the same goal of achieving Allied air superiority. While based in separate locations, the Eighth Air Force in England and the Fifteenth Air Force in Italy flew
missions as part of the Army Air Force’s Daylight Precision Bombing campaign. Their missions involved hitting targets of strategic importance such as factories, railyards, and oil refineries to cripple the German war effort. The mission of the Ninth and Second Tactical Air Forces differed slightly. The mission of Tactical Air Forces was to attack targets of opportunity disrupting enemy operations as well as provide close air support for troops on the ground. This difference in mission led to different aircraft needed to accomplish each Air Force’s specific goals.

The Eighth and Fifteenth Air Forces took part in strategic bombing. They operated heavy bombers like the B-17 and B-24, the only bombers in the American arsenal capable of flying the extreme distances required to hit targets deep in enemy territory. On the other hand, Tactical Air Forces like the Ninth and Second did not fly long-distance missions, opting to operate medium bombers and ground attack fighters instead.

Eisenhower’s command of five different Air Forces meant that he worked with five different leaders, all trying to accomplish their own missions. Arthur Harris was one such leader. Allied leadership agreed early in the war that the RAF did not have the means to take heavy casualties as the Army Air Force did. Harris’s philosophy famously stated, “If you can’t kill the factories, kill the factory workers.” It was decided that the RAF’s Bomber Command would work in tandem with the American Army Air Force. While the Americans undertook the herculean effort of Daylight Precision Bombing, the RAF firebombed German cities by night.

The implementation of strategic airpower today is a cornerstone of modern warfighting, but in the 1940s, airpower still had much to prove. World War II was the first time in history that airpower emerged as a primary tool used to accomplish strategic goals. The fledgling Eighth Air Force struggled at first as its commander Carl A. Spaatz faced political pressure to start
conducting raids over Europe– despite lacking significant numbers of aircraft. Spaatz found a solution in working with the British during some of the Eighth’s earliest raids as they built up their forces in England. When more substantial numbers arrived, the Eighth Air Force was finally able to start its bombing campaign.

The Fifteenth Airforce began its service in January 1943 as the Allies fought their way through North Africa and set their eyes on Sicily. They also participated in strategic bombing missions focusing on targets in Southern and Eastern Europe. Their most famous operation came in August 1943 during Operation Tidal Wave’s campaign to destroy the Ploiesti Oil Fields in Romania which provided ⅓ of Germany’s crude oil. The destruction of Ploiesti marked a milestone of success in the lead-up to D-Day as it helped deny German units access to fuel.

For much of the early part of the war, Allied Air Forces operated independently of each other,
flying missions to complete individual objectives; however, as D-Day neared, Ike and top leaders at the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF) knew they needed to get Allied air power working towards a common goal. It was time for Ike to appoint a Supreme Commander of Allied Air Forces.

Eisenhower’s first choice to become Supreme Commander of the Allied Air Forces was Air Marshall Sir Arthur Tedder. An experienced WWI veteran, Tedder's career revolved around air power since its inception. During the North Africa campaign, Tedder devised new bombing tactics known as “Tedder’s Carpet” (known today as carpet bombing). Unfortunately for Ike, Tedder could not take the position as he was appointed Deputy Supreme Commander of the
Allied Expeditionary Force, a move meant to appease British allies by giving their leaders a place of prominence.

Ike’s second choice to command Allied Air Forces was Air Chief Marshall Trafford Leigh-Mallory. Mallory–a WWI veteran, also spent his career in the fledgling world of air power rising through the ranks of the RAF. His resume and experience left him as the logical successor to Tedder, but his appointment to command Allied Air Forces was met with some skepticism from bomber commanders. Mallory’s time in the RAF was not spent in the realm of bombers and strategic air power like his compatriot Tedder, he came from a background in the RAF’s Fighter Command. Eisenhower needed to find a compromise to allow for cooperation between Allied Air Forces under Mallory’s leadership.

Leaders at SHAEF decided that strategic bombers would report directly to Eisenhower, the Supreme Commander, whilst still being advised by Mallory and other Allied Chiefs of Staff. With Mallory appointed as Supreme Commander of Allied Air Forces, it was time to decide on a strategy for Allied air power in the final push to D-Day.

Operation Point Blank was the codename given to the Combined Bomber Offensive plan leading up to D-Day. Point Blank, the brainchild of Chief Air Marshall Mallory, had Allied Strategic and Tactical Air Forces work together to establish air superiority. Mallory designated two primary targets for Operation Point Blank; the first is rail yards and other key logistic hubs for the German army. This part of the plan looked to deny the enemy of its transportation network and logistical support. Point Blank also targeted Luftwaffe airfields and air defenses so that when the Allied invasion did come in June 1944, the Luftwaffe could not combat the number of Allied sorties flown in support of the landings.

Operation Point Blank and its success marked a turning point for Allied strategy in the air and for Ike’s time as commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force. Point Blank saw strategic and tactical airpower work together to achieve Allied air superiority over Europe. Their success allowed the Allies to land 150,000 troops on the beaches of Normandy on June 6, 1944, and fly the missions required to support the invasion. For General Eisenhower, his work with the air war over Europe helped establish strategic and tactical airpower as proven warfighting tools. His success serves as another case study of his remarkable leadership style. Ike worked with a conglomerate of leaders throughout the U.S. Army Air Force and the Royal Air Force to accomplish major Allied objectives in the European Theatre of Operations.