(H)our History Lesson: Lorton Reformatory and the Changing Space of Prisons

Guard tower at Lorton. Photo by Forsaken Fotos, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=46996508

Lesson Background:

This lesson was written by Alison Russell, intern with the Cultural Resource Office of Interpretation and Education. It is based on the National Register of Historic Places’ Lorton Reformatory and Workhouse in Lorton, Virginia.

Grade level adapted for:

This lesson is intended for high school students but can easily be adapted to use by middle school students.

Objective:

1. Identify challenges faced by those incarcerated at Lorton Reformatory

2. Evaluate the relationship between the built environment and people’s lives

3. Investigate the growth of the American prison system in the 20th century.

Inquiry Question:

How does the built environment influence the actions and outcomes of the people who live there? How do the designs and policies of prison spaces impact the people incarcerated there?

Terms to Know:

• Prison: A place those convicted of serious crimes are put to serve a longer sentence (usually more than 12 months)

• Jail: A place for those awaiting trial or held for minor crimes, often a county or local institution, (usually less than 12 months)

• Detention Center: Usually a place for juveniles who have been charged or convicted of a crime

• Penitentiary: a public institution in which offenders against the law are confined for detention or punishment.

• State v. federal prisons and penitentiaries: Because the United States uses a system of federalism, there are federal prisons and penitentiaries as well as prison systems run by each state. This lesson focuses on federal prisons and the District of Columbia. The rules and practices differ from state to state.

Main quad of Lorton Reformatory in 2020. Photo by Antony-22, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=94975925

Warm Up:

1. What do you think this place is?

2. What other places have you seen that look like it?

3. How does the layout or design of the space help you guess its purpose?

Background Reading

The Lorton Reformatory, originally the District of Columbia Workhouse, opened in 1910. It was part of Progressive reformers’ effort to build prisons that focused on rehabilitation. With this goal, there were no walls. The layout and buildings resembled a college campus. People convicted of minor crimes learned skills for their lives after incarceration and a work ethic. The open plan included dormitories and green quads to promote positive social interaction. The first men imprisoned helped build later structures as bricklayers and carpenters.

In 1917, suffragists joined the women’s population at Occoquan Workhouse in Lorton. D.C. officials charged the women with traffic violations when they were protesting for the vote. In addition to mistreatment and poor food, the superintendent ordered the women beaten in the Night of Terror. Some women including Lucy Burns responded by going on a hunger strike. They used their time at Lorton to strengthen their argument for the vote.2

Overcrowding in federal penitentiaries caused the transfer of people convicted of more violent crimes into Lorton. Concerns about the security of the new population led to the construction of a walled complex in 1930, with added guard towers. In 1935, a set of cell blocks for solitary confinement were built, known as “The Hole.” Prison leaders added barbed wire in the 1950s. Lorton continued to offer work opportunities to those imprisoned even while reform became less of a goal. Often there were more prisoners than work opportunities.3

Many people incarcerated were from the District of Columbia. The short distance between Lorton and DC meant people were able to maintain ties to the community.4 There were family events and musical concerts in the decades between the 1960s and the 1990s.

Uprisings increased from the 1970s through the 1990s. Incarcerated men protested poor conditions and in turn, caused property damage and a hostage situation. By the 1990s, Lorton Reformatory was in bad physical condition. Congressional hearings concluded that it should close due to: “crumbling perimeter walls, abandoned guard towers, malfunctioning security systems, escapes, riots, inadequate maintenance of facilities, murder within its confines, gross personnel shortages, inadequately trained staff, and readily available drugs,” which “painted a picture of a prison facility that is no longer serving the public interest.”5 There were 7,300 people imprisoned in Lorton in 1995, 44% more than originally intended. At this date, 95% of those incarcerated here were Black. It took several years but the last incarcerated person was transferred out in 2001.

An arcade in the main quad of Lorton Reformatory. Photo by Antony-22, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=94975930

Activity 1: Does Space make Place?

A 1972 view of the Reformatory. Image from the District of Columbia Archives.

The image is the original dormitory style space. Return to the questions that you answered for the warmup, now thinking about this space as a penitentiary.

1. What other places does this space remind you of?

2. With no walls, open dormitories, and opportunities for work-training, how might a person feel if they were imprisoned here? Do you see connections between the mission of the institution, reform, and the way it was built? Does this fit with your understanding of the purpose of prison?

3. Stewart Anderson, who was incarcerated at Lorton, noted that work was not voluntary and poorly paid. Some people claim it conditioned people to work for little or no pay and to have little financial security when they emerged.6 What do you think about this criticism? How does this fit with your understanding of the purpose of prison?

Activity 2:

Read the following article from the Washington Post and discuss the reading questions.

Toni Locy. “Occoquan Called District’s Most Violent Prison: Shortage of Guards Leaves Inmates in Charge, Court Monitor Reports.” Washington DC: The Washington Post, December 6, 1995. ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

“The Occoquan prison at the Lorton Correctional Complex has become the District’s most violent prison…according to a report filed this week by a court-appointed special officer in several prisoners’ rights cases against the city.

In a 65 page report, [Grace M.] Lopes [the special officer] said inmates, who have too much time on their hands because there are no industrial jobs and few vocational training programs, are arming themselves with shanks, or homemade knives, to ward off attacks at all hours, including when they sleep. Corrections officers can do little because the facility is so short-staffed, she said….

‘Gross deficiencies in correctional officer staffing levels, combined with such factors as severe crowding, pervasive inmate idleness, and extensive environmental health and safety violations, have compromised the security of the facility and resulted in a culture of violence and inmate control,” Lopes wrote.

Lopes blamed city officials for failing to allow the department to hire the number of officers it needs to meet court mandates.

She sided with lawyers for the American Civil Liberties Union’s National Prison Project who are asking [Judge] Green to hold the city in contempt of court and impose fines of $1,000 a day for failing to honor the staffing level.”

Reading Questions:

1. What were the main ideas of Lopes’ report?

2. How are the circumstances described in the article and the report different from what the original vision of the Reformatory was?

3. Do you think there is enough evidence between the causes Lopes identifies and the violence in the prison? Why or why not?

4. How does the way a prison or penitentiary is run impact the life of those imprisoned there?

5. The ACLU lawsuit was one of several brought against prison officials over 25 years. Often these cases were started by men in prison. One was a class action lawsuit in 1973 alleging abuse, racial segregation, and religious discrimination. What inference can you make about the ability of people in prison to advocate for themselves? How does this fit with the rights you think all Americans should have protected?

Extension

Lorton Reformatory and Workhouse is being turned into a new space, with a community center, museums, and homes. Named “Liberty,” the construction looks to preserve the historical structures. This means that a lot of the buildings will retain features from when they were prisons.

Ask students to design their own community or neighborhood. What buildings or structures would they include- types of housing, amenities like playgrounds or grocery stores, etc.? Then have them mark all the buildings or structures people who are incarcerated would also need. Have students discuss their answers. Use the following questions to guide them:

1. What are the similar purposes in designing a community for people to live and a prison or penitentiary for those convicted of crimes? How would that influence what types of buildings are included?

2. What are different purposes in designing a community for people to live and a prison or penitentiary for those convicted of crimes? How would that influence what types of buildings are included?

3. Can buildings serve both functions? Why or why not? What does your answer say about the purpose of prisons in society?

More Resources :

The Silent Sentinels and the Night of Terror

For more information about the role Lorton played in the Women’s Suffrage movement, read this article from the Smithsonian’s Folklife Magazine. For information about the larger role of prisons in the suffrage movement, this series of articles from the National Park Service provides an overview.

The Workhouse Arts Center

To see more about what is happening at Lorton today, visit the website of the Workhouse Arts Center, which serves as a museum and community center for the community. This includes the Lucy Burns Museum dedicated to suffrage history.

More on Jails, Prisons and Incarceration

For more information on incarceration, visit the National Park Service Jails, Prison and Incarceration page. It links to other historic sites related to jails and prisons, as well as other resources to help you learn more. Some places, like Alcatraz, are well known. Use the links to discover lesser-known histories of incarceration in the United States.